The addition of water is used to past by internal post-curing of hardening cement. Hydration and curing of cementitious are widely identified by non-destructive 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements of transverse relaxation time and self-diffusion. However, those non-destructive analytical methodologies do not give a truly chemical characterization of the cement matrix during the hydration and curing process. Indeed, the NMR studies only the water dynamics of hydrating cement with internal post-curing. Recent research indicated chemometrics coupled with Raman spectroscopy allows for a better understanding of chemical processes. Recent advances in computing gave industries and research centers the opportunity to generate cost effective data. In this work, an original method is presented, which uses both a data analysis and a non-invasive, non-destructive Raman monitoring of the hydration reaction of a Portland cement. Data was then analyzed by means of chemometrics methods (principal components analysis (PCA), independent components analysis (ICA), and multivariate curve resolution-alternated least-squares (MCR-ALS) with SIMPLe-to-use Interactive Self-modelling Mixture Analysi (SIMPLISMA) and Orthogonal Projection Approach (OP initialization). Results were compared to the ones obtained with thermogravimetric analysis of this cement paste. Besides the consistency of results from both analytical measurements, chemometrics coupled to Raman spectroscopy accurately revealed the details of the setting without any samples collection. The acquisition frequency allowed a proper identification of the occurrence of each of the various phases involved in the hydration and setting process.
Baroghel-BounyV.. Caractérisation des pâtes de ciment et des bétons. Méthodes, analyse, interprétations. France: Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées, 1994.
3.
BertoliniL.ElsenerB.PedeferriP.RedaelliE.PolderR.B.. “Cements and Cement Paste”. In: Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair. Weinheim: Wiley, 2013. Chap. 1, Pp. 1–20. 10.1002/9783527651696.Ch1
4.
BeaudoinJ.OdlerI.. “Hydration, Setting, and Hardening of Portland Cement”. In: LeaF.M.HewlettP. C.LiskaM., editors. Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. Kidlington, Oxford, UK: Butterworth–Heinemann, 2019. Chap. 6, Pp. 241–297. 10.1016/B978-0-08-100773-0.00005-8
AïtcinP.-C.. “Phenomenology of Cement Hydration”. In: AïtcinP.-C.FlattR.J., editors. Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures. Oxford: Woodhead Publishing, 2015. Part I, Chap. 2, Pp. 15–25. 10.1016/C2015-0-00150-2
7.
HaqueF.SantosR.M.ChiangY.W.. “Using Nondestructive Techniques in Mineral Carbonation for Understanding Reaction Fundamentals”. Powder Technol. 2019. 357: 134-148. 10.1016/j.powtec.2019.08.089
8.
FriedemannK.StallmachS.KärgerJ.. “NMR Diffusion and Relaxation Studies During Cement Hydration: A Non-Destructive Approach for Clarification of the Mechanism of Internal Post Curing of Cementitious Material”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2006. 36(5): 817-826. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.12.007
9.
BenstedJ.. “Uses of Raman Spectroscopy in Cement Chemistry”. J. Am. Ceramic Soc. 1976. 59(3–4): 140-143. 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1976.tb09451.x
ConjeaudM.BoyerH.. “Some Possibilities of Raman Microprobe in Cement Chemistry”. Cem. Concr. Res. 1980. 10(1): 61-70. 10.1016/0008-8846(80)90052-6
12.
BonenD.JohnsonT.J.SarkarS.L.. “Characterization of Principal Clinker Minerals by FT-Raman Microspectroscopy”. Cem. Concr. Res. 1994. 24(5): 959-965. 10.1016/0008-8846(94)90016-7
13.
HolmgrenA.WuL.ForslingW.. “Surface Hydration of Aqueous Calcium Minerals as Studied by Fourier Transform Raman and Infrared Spectroscopy”. Spectrochim. Acta, Part A. 1994. 50(11): 1857-1869. 10.1016/0584-8539(94)80198-3
14.
Potgieter-VermaakS.S.PotgieterJ.H.Van GriekenR.. “The Application of Raman Spectrometry to Investigate and Characterize Cement, Part I: A Review”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2006. 36(4): 656-662. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.09.008
15.
Potgieter-VermaakS.S.PotgieterJ.H.BelleilM.DeweerdtF.Van GriekenR.. “The Application of Raman Spectrometry to the Investigation of Cement Part II: A Micro-Raman Study of OPC, Slag, and Fly Ash”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2006. 36(4): 663–670. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.09.010
16.
GarbevK.StemmermannP.BlackL.BreenC., et al. “Structural Features of C–S–H(I) and Its Carbonation in Air: A Raman Spectroscopic Study. Part I: Fresh Phases”. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2007. 90(3): 900-907. 10.1111/j.1551-2916.2006.01428.x
17.
BlackL.BreenC.YarwoodJ.GarbevK., et al. “Structural Features of C–S–H(I) and Its Carbonation in Air: A Raman Spectroscopic Study. Part II: Carbonated Phases”. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2007. 90(3): 908-917. 10.1111/j.1551-2916.2006.01429.x
18.
BlackL.. “Raman Spectroscopy of Cementitious Materials”. In: DavidsonG., editor. Spectroscopic Properties of Inorganic and Organometallic Compounds. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2009. Pp. 72–127. 10.1039/b715000h
19.
TaddeiP.TintiA.GandolfiM.G.RossiP.L.PratiC.. “Ageing of Calcium Silicate Cements for Endodontic Use in Simulated Body Fluids: A Micro-Raman Study”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2009. 40(12): 1858-1866. 10.1002/jrs.2333
20.
TaddeiP.ModenaE.TintiA.SiboniF., et al. “Vibrational Investigation of Calcium-Silicate Cements for Endodontics in Simulated Body Fluids”. J. Mol. Struct2011. 993(1–3): 367-375. 10.1016/j.molstruc.2010.12.058
21.
CholletM.HorgniesM.. “Analyses of the Surfaces of Concrete by Raman and FT-IR Spectroscopies: Comparative Study of Hardened Samples After Demoulding and After Organic Post-Treatment”. Surf. Interface Anal. 2011. 43(3): 714-725. 10.1002/sia.3548
22.
Torréns-MartínD.Fernández-CarrascoL.Martínez-RamírezS.. “Hydration of Calcium Aluminates and Calcium Sulfoaluminate Studied by Raman Spectroscopy”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2013. 47: 43-50. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.01.015
23.
MasmoudiR.Kupwade-PatilK.BumajdadA.BüyüköztürkO.. “In Situ Raman Studies on Cement Paste Prepared with Natural Pozzolanic Volcanic Ash and Ordinary Portland Cement”. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017. 148: 444-454. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.016
24.
Torres-CarrascoM.del CampoA.de la RubiaM.A.MoraguesA., et al. “New Insights in Weathering Analysis of Anhydrous Cements by Using High Spectral and Spatial Resolution Confocal Raman Microscopy”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2017. 100: 119-128. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.06.003
25.
MarchettiM.MechlingJ.-M.DilibertoC.BrahimM.-N., et al., Portable Quantitative Confocal Raman Spectroscopy: Non-Destructive Approach of the Carbonation Chemistry and Kinetics”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021. 139: 106280. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106280
26.
MiT.Li LiuY. W.LiW.LongW., et al. “Quantitative Evaluation of Cement Paste Carbonation Using Raman Spectroscopy”. Npj Mater. Degrad. 2021. 5: 35. 10.1038/S41529-021-00181-6
27.
TarridaM.MadonM.Le RollandB.ColombetP.. “An In-Situ Raman Spectroscopy Study of the Hydration of Tricalcium Silicate”. Adv. Cem. Based Mater. 1995. 2(1): 15-20. 10.1016/1065-7355(95)90035-7
28.
KirkpatrickR.J.YargerJ.L.McMillanP.F.YuP.CongX.. “Raman Spectroscopy of C–S–H, Tobermorite, and Jennite”. Adv. Cem. Based Mater. 1997. 5(3–4): 93-99. 10.1016/S1065-7355(97)00001-1
29.
YuP.KirkpatrickR.J.PoeB.McMillanP.F.CongX.. Structure of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C–S–H): Near-Mid-and Far-Infrared Spectroscopy”. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 1999. 82(3): 742-748. 10.1111/j.1151-2916.1999.tb01826.x
30.
FengjuanL.ZhihuiS.ChengqingQ.Raman Spectroscopy Study on the Hydration Behaviors of Portland Cement Pastes During Setting”. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014. 27(8): 04014223. 10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001189
31.
PaluszkiewiczC.CzechowskaJ.ŚlósarczykA.PaszkiewiczZ.. “Evaluation of a Setting Reaction Pathway in the Novel Composite TiHA–CSD Bone Cement by FT-Raman and FT-IR Spectroscopy”. J. Mol. Struct. 2013. 1034: 289-295. 10.1016/j.molstruc.2012.10.044
32.
Martinez-RamirezS.FriasM.DomingoC.. “Micro-Raman Spectroscopy in White Portland Cement Hydration: Long-Term Study at Room Temperature”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2006. 37(5): 555-561. 10.1002/jrs.1428
33.
NewmanS.P.CliffordS.J.CoveneyP.V.GuptaV., et al. “Anomalous Fluorescence in Near-Infrared Raman Spectroscopy of Cementitious Materials”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2005. 35(8): 1620-1628. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.001
34.
GastaldiD.BoccaleriE.CanonicoF.BianchiM.. “The Use of Raman Spectroscopy as a Versatile Characterization Tool for Calcium Sulphoaluminate Cements: A Compositional and Hydration Study”. J. Mater. Sci. 2007. 42: 8426-8432. 10.1007/S10853-007-1790-8
35.
IbáñezJ.ArtúsL.CuscóR.LopezA., et al. “Hydration and Carbonation of Monoclinic C2S and C3S Studied by Raman Spectroscopy”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2007. 38(1): 61-67. 10.1002/jrs.1599
36.
FriasM.Martínez-RamírezS.. “Use of Micro-Raman Spectroscopy to Study Reaction Kinetics in Blended White Cement Pastes Containing Metakaolin”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2009. 40: 2063-2068. 10.1002/jrs.2372
37.
Martínez-RamírezS.FriasM.. “The Effect of Curing Temperature on White Cement Hydration”. Constr. Build. Mater. 2009. 23(3): 1344-1348. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.07.012
38.
RichardsonI.G.SkibstedJ.BlackL.KirkpatrickR.J.. “Characterisation of Cement Hydrate Phases by TEM, NMR and Raman Spectroscopy”. Adv. Cem. Res. 2010. 22(4): 233-248. 10.1680/adcr.2010.22.4.233
39.
HiglJ.HinderD.RathgeberC.RammingB.LindénM.. “Detailed In Situ ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy Study of the Early Stages of C–S–H Formation During Hydration of Monoclinic C3S”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021. 142: 106367. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106367
40.
GargN.WangK.MartinS.W.. “A Raman Spectroscopic Study of the Evolution of Sulfates and Hydroxides in Cement–Fly Ash Pastes”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2013. 53: 91-103. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.009
41.
YlménR.JäglidU.PanasI.. “Monitoring Early Hydration of Cement by Ex Situ and In Situ ATR-FTIR: A Comparative Study”. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2014. 97(11): 3669-3675. 10.1111/jace.13186
42.
SuhuaM.WeifengL.ShenbiaoZ.YueyangH.XiaodongS.. “Study on the Hydration and Microstructure of Portland Cement Containing Diethanol–Isopropanolamine”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2015. 67: 122-130. 10.1016/J.Cemconres.2014.09.002
43.
AparicioS.Martínez-RamírezS.RanzJ.FuenteJ.V.HernándezM.G.. “Microstructural and Mechanical Properties Study of the Curing Process of Self-Compacting Concrete”. Mater. Des. 2016. 94: 479-486. 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.01.067
44.
HasanzadehB.LiuF.SunZ.. “Monitoring Hydration of UHPC and Conventional Paste by Quantitative Analysis on Raman Patterns”. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016. 114: 208-214. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.178
45.
Martínez-RamírezS.Gutierrez-ContrerasR.Husillos-RodriguezN.Fernández-CarrascoL.. “In-Situ Reaction of the Very Early Hydration of C3A–Gypsum–Sucrose System by Micro-Raman Spectroscopy”. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2016. 73: 251e256. 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.07.020
46.
Moreno-VargasY.A.Luna-AriasJ.P.Flores-FlorescJ.O.OrozcoE.BucioL.. “Hydration Reactions and Physicochemical Properties in a Novel Tricalcium–Dicalcium Silicate-Based Cement Containing Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles and Calcite: A Comparative Study”. Ceram. Int. 2017. 43: 13290-13298. 10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.07.027
47.
KuenzelC.ZhangF.Ferrándiz-MasV.CheesemanC.R.GartnerE.M.. “The Mechanism of Hydration of MGO–Hydromagnesite Blends”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2018. 103: 123-129. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.10.003
48.
Dias De SouzaC.Dias De SouzaN.L.G.Gomes BarbosaM.T.StephaniR.Cappa de OliveiraL.F.. “Investigation the Sustainable Additive Influence, Obtained from Milk Protein, in the Chemical and Physical Properties of Portland Cement”. Composites, Part B. 2019. 175: 107148. 10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107148
49.
MikhailovaO.del CampoA.RovnanikaP.FernándezJ.F.Torres-CarrascoM.. “In Situ Characterization of Main Reaction Products in Alkali-Activated Slag Materials by Confocal Raman Microscopy”. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2019. 99: 32-39. 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.02.004
50.
Torres‐CarrascoM.del CampoA.de la RubiaM.A.ReyesE., et al. “In Situ Full View of the Portland Cement Hydration by Confocal Raman Microscopy”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2019. 50(5): 720-730. 10.1002/jrs.5574
51.
WinnefeldF.EpifaniaE.MontagnaroF.GartnerE.M.. “Further Studies of the Hydration of MgO–Hydromagnesite Blends”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2019. 126: 105912. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105912
52.
HayR.CelikK.. “Hydration, Carbonation, Strength Development and Corrosion Resistance of Reactive MGO Cement-Based Composites”. Cem. Concr. Res. 2020. 128: 105941. 10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105941
53.
ZhangY.XueD.. “In Situ Micro-Raman Spectroscopy of Gypsum Crystallization Driven by Chemical Reaction”. J. Mol. Struct. 2020. 1210: 128043. 10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.128043
54.
Martínez-ArkarazoI.SmithD.C.ZuloagaO.OlazabalM.A.MadariagaJ.M.. “Evaluation of Three Different Mobile Raman Microscopes Employed to Study Deteriorated Civil Building Stones”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2008. 39(8): 1018-1029. 10.1002/jrs.1941
55.
KramerK.. Chemometric Techniques for Quantitative Analysis. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998.
56.
JacksonJ.E.. A User’s Guide to Principal Components. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley–Interscience, 2003.
de JuanA.TaulerR.DysonR.MarcolliC., et al. “Spectroscopic Imaging and Chemometrics: A Powerful Combination for Global and Local Sample Analysis”. TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. 2004. 23(1): 70-79. 10.1016/S0165-9936(04)00101-3
59.
SvinningK.. “Design and Manufacture of Portland Cement: Application of Sensitivity Analysis in Exploration and Optimisation Part I: Exploration”. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2006. 84(1–2): 177-187. 10.1016/j.chemolab.2006.04.011
60.
CarlsonJ.E.TaavitsainenV.-M.. “Ultrasonic Measurement of the Reaction Kinetics of the Setting of Calcium Sulfate Cements Using Implicit Calibration”. J. Chemom. 2008. 22(11–12): 752-757. 10.1002/Cem.1136
61.
SvinningK.HøskuldssonA.. “Application of Multi-Block Methods in Cement Production”. J. Chemom. 2008. 22(11–12): 587-593. 10.1002/cem.1200
62.
Gómez-LasernaO.ArrizabalagaI.Prieto-TaboadaN.OlazabalM.A., et al. “In Situ DRIFT, Raman, and XRF Implementation in a Multianalytical Methodology to Diagnose the Impact Suffered by Built Heritage in Urban Atmospheres”. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2015. 407(19): 5635-5647. 10.1007/s00216-015-8738-7
63.
GottliebC.MillarS.GüntherT.WilschG.. “Revealing Hidden Spectral Information of Chlorine and Sulfur in Data of a Mobile Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy System Using Chemometrics”. Spectrochim. Acta, Part B. 2017. 132: 43-49. 10.1016/j.sab.2017.04.001
64.
MechlingJ.-M.LecomteA.DilibertoC.. “Relation Between Cement Composition and Compressive Strength of Pure Paste Cement and Concrete Composites”. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2009. 31(4): 255-262. 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.02.009
65.
Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR). NF EN 197-1, Cement Part 1: Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements. France, April 2012.
66.
BreretonR.G.. Chemometrics: Data Analysis for the Laboratory and Chemical Plant. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2003.
67.
BreretonR.G.. Applied Chemometrics for Scientists. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2007.
68.
RuckebuschC.. Resolving Spectral Mixtures: With Applications from Ultrafast Time-Resolved Spectroscopy to Super-Resolution Imaging. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2016.
69.
OffroyM.MoreauM.SobanskaS.MilanfarP.DuponchelL.. “Pushing Back the Limits of Raman Imaging by Coupling Super-Resolution and Chemometrics for Aerosols Characterization”. Sci. Rep. 2015. 5: 12303. 10.1038/Srep1230
70.
LaxaldeJ.CaillolN.WahlF.RuckebuschC.DuponchelL.. “Combining Near and Mid Infrared Spectroscopy for Heavy Oil Characterization”. Fuel. 2014. 133: 310-316. 10.1016/j.fuel.2014.05.041
71.
OffroyM.DuponchelL.. “Topological Data Analysis: A Promising Big Data Exploration Tool in Biology, Analytical Chemistry and Physical Chemistry”. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2016. 910: 1-11. 10.1016/j.aca.2015.12.037
72.
MonakhovaY.RutledgeD.. “Independent Components Analysis (ICA) at the 'Cocktail-Party'“. Talanta. 2020. 208: 120451. 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.120451
73.
de JuanA.MaederM.HancewiczT.DuponchelL.TaulerR.. “Chemometric Tools for Image Analysis”. In: SalzerR.SieslerH.W., editors. Infrared and Raman Spectroscopic Imaging. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH, 2009. Chap. 2, Pp. 65–106.
74.
JaumotJ.GargalloR.de JuanA.TaulerR.. “A Graphical User-Friendly Interface for MCR-ALS: A New Tool for Multivariate Curve Resolution in MATLAB”. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2005. 76(1): 101-110. 10.1016/j.chemolab.2004.12.007
75.
GolubG.H.ReinschC.. “Singular Value Decomposition and Least Squares Solutions”. Numer. Math. 1970. 14: 403-420. 10.1007/BF02163027
76.
RuckebuschC.de JuanA.DuponchelL.HuvenneJ.P.. “Matrix Augmentation for Breaking Rank-Deficiency: A Case Study”. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2006. 80(2): 209-214. 10.1016/j.chemolab.2005.06.009
WindigW.StephensonD.. “Self-Modeling Mixture Analysis of Second-Derivative Near-Infrared Spectral Data Using the SIMPLISMA Approach. A”. Anal. Chem. 1992. 64(22): 2735-2742. 10.1021/ac00046a015
80.
WindigW.. “Spectral Data Files for Self-Modeling Curve Resolution with Examples Using the Simplisma Approach”. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 1997. 36(1): 3-16. 10.1016/S0169-7439(96)00061-5
81.
De BraekeleerK.MassartD.L.. “Evaluation of the Orthogonal Projection Approach (OPA) and the SIMPLISMA Approach on the Windig Standard Spectral Data Sets”. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 1997. 39(2): 127-141. 10.1016/S0169-7439(97)00060-9
82.
GourvénecS.MassartD.L.RutledgeD.N.. “Determination of the Number of Components During Mixture Analysis Using the Durbin–Watson Criterion in the Orthogonal Projection Approach and in the Simple-to-Use Interactive Self-Modelling Mixture Analysis Approach”. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2002. 61(1–2): 51-61. 10.1016/S0169-7439(01)00172-1
83.
BayatE.T.HemmateenejadB.AkhondM.BordbarM.M.BaumannK.. “On the Dependency Between Principal Components: Application to Determine the Rank of a Matrix in an Evolutionary Process”. J. Chemom2019. 33(3): e3102. 10.1002/cem.3102
84.
TukeyJ.W.. Exploratory Data Analysis. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1971.
85.
PrattW.K.. Digital Image Processing: PICS Scientific Inside. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Interscience, 2007.
86.
GeladiP.MacDougallD.MartensH.. “Linearization and Scatter-Correction for Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectra of Meat”. Appl. Spectrosc. 1985. 39(3): 491-500. 10.1366/00037028542486
MartensH.StarkE.. “Extended Multiplicative Signal Correction and Spectral Interference Subtraction: New Preprocessing Methods for Near Infrared Spectroscopy”. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 1991. 9(8): 625-635. 10.1016/0731-7085(91)80188-f
89.
MartensH.NielsenJ.P.EngelsenS.B.. “Light Scattering and Light Absorbance Separated by Extended Multiplicative Signal Correction. Application to Near-Infrared Transmission Analysis of Powder Mixtures”. Anal. Chem. 2003. 75(3): 394-404. 10.1021/ac020194w
PiquerasS.DuponchelL.TaulerR.de JuanA.. “Resolution and Segmentation of Hyperspectral Biomedical Images by Multivariate Curve Resolution-Alternating Least Squares”. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2011. 705(1–2): 182-192. 10.1016/j.aca.2011.05.020
92.
RamachandranV.S.ParoliR.P.BeaudoinJ.DelgadoA.H.. Handbook of Thermal Analysis of Construction Materials. Norwich, New York: Noyes Publications, 2002.
93.
RuanH.D.FrostR.L.KloporggeJ.T.. “Comparison of Raman Spectra in Characterizing Gibbsite, Bayerite, Diaspore and Boehmite”. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2001. 32(9): 745-750. 10.1002/jrs.736
94.
HuangL.SongW.LiH.ZhangH.YangZ.. “Effects of Aphthitalite on the Formation of Clinker Minerals and Hydration Properties”. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018. 183: 275-282. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.082
95.
TwomeyC.BirkinshawC.BreenS.. “The Identity of the Sulfur-Containing Phases Present in Cement Clinker Manufactured Using a High Sulfur Petroleum Coke Fuel”. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2004. 79(5): 486-490. 10.1002/jctb.1008
96.
AkmanM.S.ÇavdarZ.. “Efflorescence Problem in Superplasticized Concretes”. In: CabreraJ.G.Rivera-VillarrealR., editors. Paper presented at: International RILEM Conference on the Role of Admixtures in High Performance Concrete. Monterrery, Mexico; 21 March 1999. Pp. 316–329.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
