Forensic Application of X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy for the Discrimination of Authentic and Counterfeit Revenue Stamps

Abstract

Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) spectroscopy with data treatment via chemometric tools was explored as an analytical protocol to discriminate between authentic and counterfeit revenue stamps. Untreated samples were directly analyzed, and the discrimination was based on the characterization of constituent elements present in the inks and paper. Authentic samples and samples that were suspected of being counterfeit were analyzed at three different areas on their surfaces: the ink-printed area, the non-printed area, and the holographic area. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the data to discriminate between authentic and counterfeit revenue stamps. Major differences in the elemental composition were noted (according to chemometrics and t-test, p < 0.05), and ED-XRF spectroscopy plus PCA protocol is proposed for use by non-specialist operators to screen for counterfeit stamps.

Keywords

Forensic science questioned documents energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence revenue stamp tax stamp

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

The International Society for Collectors of Revenue Stamps and Documents. http://www.revenuesociety.org.uk [accessed Jan 13 2015].

Reconnaissance Tax Stamp News. http://www.taxstampnews.com [accessed Jan 10 2015].

Barwis

J.H.

“Paper Characteristics of U.S. 3¢ Stamps, 1870–1881”. Smithson. Contrib. Hist. Technol 2013; 57: 5–18.

Takalo

Timonen

Sampo

Rantala

Siltanen

Lassas

“Using the Fibre Structure of Paper to Determine Authenticity of The Documents: Analysis of Transmitted Light Images of Stamps and Banknotes”. Forensic Sci. Int 2014; 244: 252–258.

Bones

Macka

Paull

“Evaluation of Monolithic and Sub 2 µm Particle Packed Columns for the Rapid Screening for Illicit Drugs: Application to the Determination of Drug Contamination on Irish Euro Banknotes”. Analyst 2007; 132(3): 208–217.

Ebejer

K.A.

Brereton

R.G.

Carter

J.F.

Ollerton

S.L.

Sleeman

“Rapid Comparison of Diacetylmorphine on Banknotes by Tandem Mass Spectrometry”. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom 2005; 19(15): 2137–2143.

Mizrachi

Aizenshtat

Levy

Elkayam

“Classification and Identification of Color Photocopiers by FT-IR and GC/MS”. J. Forensic Sci 1998; 43(2): 353–361.

Song

Zhang

Kohlhof

“Determination of a Trace Amount of Cocaine on a Bank Note by Gas Chromatography-Positive-Ion Chemical-Ionization Mass Spectrometry”. J. Chromatogr. A 1996; 731(1–2): 355–360.

Wimmer

Schneider

“Screening for Illicit Drugs on Euro Banknotes by LC-MS/MS”. Forensic Sci. Int 2011; 206(1–3): 172–177.

10.

Ifa

D.R.

Jackson

A.U.

Paglia

Cooks

R.G.

“Forensic Applications of Ambient Ionization Mass Spectrometry”. Anal. Bioanal. Chem 2009; 394(8): 1995–2008.

11.

Alberici

R.M.

Simas

R.C.

Sanvido

G.B.

Romão

Lalli

P.M.

Benassi

Cunha

I.B.S.

Eberlin

M.N.

“Ambient Mass Spectrometry: Bringing MS Into the “Real World””. Anal. Bioanal. Chem 2010; 398(1): 265–294.

12.

Kao

Y.Y.

Cheng

C.N.

Cheng

S.C.

H.O.

Shiea

“Distinguishing Authentic and Counterfeit Banknotes by Surface Chemical Composition Determined Using Electrospray Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry”. J. Mass Spectrom 2013; 48(11): 1129–1135.

13.

Eberlin

L.S.

Haddad

Sarabia Neto

R.C.

Cosso

R.G.

Maia

D.R.J.

Maldaner

A.O.

Zacca

J.J.

Sanvido

G.B.

Romão

Vaz

B.G.

Ifa

D.R.

“Instantaneous Chemical Profiles of Banknotes by Ambient Mass Spectrometry”. Analyst 2010; 135(10): 2533–2539.

14.

Sugawara

“Passport Examination by Polarized Infrared Spectra”. J. Forensic Sci 2007; 52(4): 974–977.

15.

Vila

Ferrer

Mantecón

Bretón

García

J.F.

“Development of a Fast and Non-Destructive Procedure for Characterizing and Distinguishing Original and Fake Euro Notes”. Anal. Chim. Acta 2006; 559(2): 257–263.

16.

Božičević

M.S.

Gajović

Zjakić

“Identifying a Common Origin of Toner Printed Counterfeit Banknotes by Micro-Raman Spectroscopy”. Forensic Sci. Int 2012; 223(1–3): 314–320.

17.

Guedes

Algarra

Prieto

A.C.

Valentim

Hortelano

Neto

Algarra

Noronha

“Raman Microspectroscopy of Genuine and Fake Euro Banknotes”. Spectrosc. Lett 2013; 46(8): 569–576.

18.

Castro

Benito

Á.

Martínez-Arkarazo

Etxebarria

Madariaga

J.M.

“Scientific Examination of Classic Spanish Stamps with Colour Error, a Non-Invasive Micro-Raman And Micro-XRF Approach: The King Alfonso XIII (1889-1901 “Pelón”) 15 Cents Definitive Issue”. J. Cult. Herit 2008; 9(2): 189–195.

19.

Cesareo

Brunetti

“X-ray Fluorescence: Analysis of 19th Century Stamps”. X-Ray Spectrom 2008; 37(3): 260–264.

20.

Gill

T.E.

“Analysis of Postage Stamps by Proton-Induced X-Ray Emission Spectrometry”. Smithson. Contrib. Hist. Technol 2013; 57: 83–90.

21.

West

Ellis

A.T.

Potts

P.J.

Streli

Vanhoof

Wegrzynek

Wobrauschek

“Atomic Spectrometry Update-X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry”. J. Anal. At. Spectrom 2011; 26(10): 1919–1963.

22.

Almeida

M.R. de

Correa

D.N.

Rocha

W.F.C.

Scafi

F.J.O.

Poppi

R.J.

“Discrimination between Authentic and Counterfeit Banknotes Using Raman Spectroscopy and PLS-DA with Uncertainty Estimation”. Microchem. J 2013; 109: 170–177.

23.

Latzel

Neimke

Schumacher

Barth

Niewohner

“Shooting Distance Determination by M-XRF-Examples on Spectra Interpretation and Range Estimation”. Forensic Sci. Int 2012; 223(1–3): 273–278.

24.

Reid

Chana

Bond

J.W.

Almond

M.J.

Black

“Stubs Versus Swabs? A Comparison of Gunshot Residue Collection Techniques”. J. Forensic Sci 2010; 55: 753–756.

25.

Palmer

P.T.

Jacobs

Baker

P.E.

Ferguson

Webber

“Use of Field-Portable XRF Analyzers for Rapid Screening of Toxic Elements in FDA-Regulated Products”. J. Agric. Food Chem 2009; 57(7): 2605–2613.

26.

Laura Feraru

Mihaly

Meghea

“Chromatic Analysis of Blue Ballpoint Pen Inks and Related Dyes”. Color Res. Appl 2014; 40(2): 169–177.

27.

Chu

P.C.

Cai

B.Y.

Tsoi

Y.K.

Yuen

Leung

K.S.Y.

Cheung

N.H.

“Forensic Analysis of Laser Printed Ink by X-Ray Fluorescence and Laser-Excited Plume Fluorescence”. Anal. Chem 2013; 85(9): 4311–4315.

28.

Appoloni

C.R.

Melquiades

F.L.

“Portable XRF and Principal Component Analysis for Bill Characterization in Forensic Science”. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 2014; 85: 92–95.

29.

Schwab

N.V.

Eberlin

M.N.

“Mass Spectrometry Made Easy: The Quest for Simplicity”. Drug Test. Anal 2013; 5(3): 137–144.