Prehypertension has been recently described as an independent category of blood pressure. Mounting evidence suggests that blood pressure in the prehypertensive range is associated with an increased risk of developing hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Several reports have assigned a critical role for oxidative stress in these disease processes. This review focuses on the clinical and experimental studies done in prehypertension and hypertension within the context of oxidative stress. This article also provides insights into why diverse therapeutic interventions, which have in common the ability to reduce oxidative stress, can impede or delay the onset of hypertension in prehypertension subjects.
RaijmakersM.T., DechendR., PostonL.Oxidative stress and preeclampsia: rationale for antioxidant clinical trials.Hypertension.2004; 44: 374–380.
8.
VaziriN.D., WangX.Q., OveisiF.Rad B. Induction of oxidative stress by glutathione depletion causes severe hypertension in normal rats.Hypertension.2000; 36: 142–146.
9.
ChobanianA.V., BakrisG.L., BlackH.R.; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report.JAMA.2003; 289: 2560–2572.
10.
VasanR.S., LarsonM.G., LeipE.P., KannelW.B., LevyD.Assessment of frequency progression to hypertension in non-hypertensive participants in the Framingham Heart Study: a cohort study.Lancet.2001; 358: 1682–1676.
11.
ValkoM., LeibfritzD., MoncolJ., CroninM.T., MazurM., TelserJ.Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiology and human disease.Int J Biochem Cell Biol.2007; 39: 44–48.
12.
TherondP., Bonnefont-RousselotD., Davit-SpraulA., ContiM., LegrandA.Biomarkers of oxidative stress: an analytical approach.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.2000; 3: 373–384.
13.
ToyokuniS., AkatsukaS.Pathological investigation of oxidative stress in the post-genomic era.Pathol Int.2007; 57: 461–473.
14.
GateL., PaulJ., Nguyen BaG., TewK.D., TapieroH.Oxidative stress induced in pathologies: the role of antioxidants.Biomed Pharmacother.1999; 53: 169–180.
15.
KshirsagarA.V., CarpenterM., BangH., WyattS.B., ColindresR.E.Blood pressure usually considered normal is associated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease.Am J Med.2006; 119: 133–141.
GreenlandK.J., CroftJ.B., MensahG.A.Prevalence of heart disease and stroke risk factors in persons with prehypertension in the United States 1999–2000.Arch Intern Med.2004; 164: 2113–2118.
18.
GriendlingK.K., FitzgeraldG.A.Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury: part I: basic mechanisms and in vivo monitoring of reactive oxygen species.Circulation.2003; 108: 1912–1916.
19.
RedonJ., OlivaM.R., TormosC.Antioxidant activities and oxidative stress byproducts in human hypertension.Hypertension.2003; 41: 1096–1101.
20.
FortunoA., OlivanS., BeloquiO.Association of increased phagocytic NADPH oxidase-dependent superoxide production with diminished nitric oxide generation in essential hypertension.J Hypertens.2004; 22: 2169–2175.
21.
McCarronD.A., MorrisC.D., HenryH.J., StantonJ.L.Blood pressure and nutrient intake in the United States.Science.1984; 224: 1392–1398.
YoshiokaM., MatsushitaT., ChumanY.Inverse association of serum ascorbic acid level and blood pressure or rate of hypertension in male adults aged 30-39 years.Int J Vitam Nutr Res.1984; 54: 343–347.
24.
RacasanS., BraamB., van der GiezenD.M.Perinatal L-arginine and antioxidant supplements reduce adult blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Hypertension.2004; 44: 83–88.
25.
HisakiR., FujitaH., SaitoF., KushiroT.Tempol attenuates the development of hypertensive renal injury in Dahl salt sensitive rats.Am J Hypertens.2005; 18: 707–713.
26.
PagninE., GiaconB., ZaghettoF.Arterial hypertension and oxidative stress induced by cyclosporine. Effect of carvedilol.Ann Ital Med Int.2001; 16: 101–105.
27.
VasdevS., GillV., ParaiS., LongerichL., GadagV.Dietary vitamin E and C supplementation prevents fructose induced hypertension in rats.Mol Cell Biochem.2002; 241: 107–114.
28.
SathiyapriyaV., NandeeshaH., BobbyZ., SelvarajN., PavithranP.Perturbation of oxidant-antioxidant status in non-obese prehypertensive male subjects.J Hum Hypertens.2007; 21: 176–178.
29.
SamiecP.S., Drews-BotschC., FlaggE.W.Glutathione in human plasma: decline in association with aging, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetes.Free Radic Biol Med.1998; 24: 699–704.
30.
CerielloA., GiuglianoD., QuatraroA., LefebvreP.J.Antioxidants show an anti-hypertensive effect in diabetic and hypertensive subjects.Clin Sci.1991; 81: 739–742.
31.
Kedziora-KornatowskaK., CzuczejkoJ., PawlukH.The markers of oxidative stress and activity of the antioxidant system in the blood of elderly patients with essential arterial hypertension.Cell Mol Biol Lett.2004; 9: 635–641.
32.
KashyapM.K., YadavV., SherawatB.S.Different antioxidant status, total antioxidant power and free radicals in essential hypertension.Mol Cell Biochem.2005; 277: 89–99.
33.
Dalle-DonneI., RossiR., GiustariniD., MilzaniA., ColomboR.Protein carbonyl groups as biomarkers of oxidative stress.Clin Chim Acta.2003; 329: 23–38.
34.
BastA., Haenen GuidoR.M.M., DoelmanC.J.A.Oxidants and antioxidants: state of the art.Am J Med.1991; 91: 2S–13S.
35.
ChrysuhoouC., PanagiotakosD.B., PitsavosC.The association between pre-hypertension status and oxidative stress markers related to atherosclerosis disease: the ATTICA study.Atherosclerosis.2007; 192: 169–176.
36.
WitztumJ.L.The oxidation hypothesis of atherosclerosis.Lancet.1994; 344: 793–795.
37.
OffermanM.K., MedfordR.M.Antioxidants and atherosclerosis: a molecular perspective.Heart Dis Stroke.1994; 3: 52–57.
38.
KunschC., MedfordR.M.Oxidative stress as a regulator of gene expression in the vasculature.Circ Res.1999; 85: 753–766.
39.
EndemannD., TouyzR.M., LiJ.S., DengL.Y., SchiffrinE.L.Altered antiogensin II-induced small artery contraction during the development of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Am J Hypertens.1999; 12: 716–723.
40.
ChabrashviliT., TojoA., OnozatoM.L.Expression and cellular localization of classic NADPH oxidase sub-units in the spontaneously hypertensive rat kidney.Hypertension.2002; 39: 269–274.
41.
GridendlingK.K., SorescuD., Ushio-FukaiM.NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease.Circ Res.2000; 86: 494–501.
42.
CosentinoF., PattonS., d'UscioLVTetrahydrobiopterin alters superoxide and nitric oxide release in prehypertensive rats.J Clin Invest.1998; 101: 1530–1537.
43.
NabhaL., GarbernJ.C., BullerC.L., CharpieJ.R.Vascular oxidative stress precedes high blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Clin Exp Hypertens.2005; 27: 71–82.
44.
KitiyakaraC., WilcoxC.S.Antioxidants for hypertension.Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens.1998; 7: 531–538.
45.
WilcoxC.S.Role of macula densa NOS in tubular glomerular feedback.Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens.1998; 7: 443–449.
46.
ChuY., IidaS., LundD.D.Gene transfer of extracellular superoxide dismutase reduces arterial pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Role of heparin-binding domain.Circ Res.2003; 92: 461–468.
47.
WelchW.J., ChabrashviliT., SolisG.Role of extracellular superoxide dismutase in the mouse angiotensin slow pressor response.Hypertension.2006; 48: 934–941.
48.
WelchW.J., SolisG., ChabrashviliT., AslamS., ChenY., WilcoxC.S.Oxidant stress in kidneys of spontaneously hypertensive rats involves both oxidase overexpression and loss of extracellular superoxide dismutase.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol.2004; 287: F907–F913.
49.
YanagisawaH., DavisE.C., StarcherB.C.Fibulin-5 is an elastin-binding protein essential for elastic fibre development in vivo.Nature.2002; 415: 168–171.
50.
VaziriN.D., WangX.Q., OveisiF., RadB.Induction of oxidative stress by glutathione depletion causes severe hypertension in normal rats.Hypertension.2000; 36: 142–146.
51.
BayorhM.A., GanafaA.A., SocciR.R., EatmanD., SilvestrovaN., AbukhalafI.K.Effect of losartan on oxidative stress-induced hypertension in Sprague-Dawley rats.Am J Hypertens.2003; 16: 387–392.
52.
GanafaA.A., SocciR.R., EatmanD., SilvestrovaN., AbukhalafI.K., BayorhM.A.Acute inhibition of glutathione biosynthesis alters endothelial function and blood pressure in rats.Eur J Pharmacol.2002; 454: 217–223.
53.
GanafaA.A., SocciR.R., EatmanD., SilvestrovaN., AbukhalafI.K., BayorhM.A.: Effect of palm oil on oxidative stress-induced hypertension in Sprague-Dawley rats.Am J Hypertens.2002; 15: 725–731.
54.
MeisterA.Selective modification of glutathione metabolism.Science.1983; 220: 472–477.
55.
VaziriN.D., LiangK., DingY.Increased nitric oxide inactivation by reactive oxygen species in lead-induced hypertension.Kidney Int.1999; 56: 1492–1498.
56.
VaziriN.D., LinC.Y., FarmandF., SindhuR.K.Superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and NADPH oxidase in lead induced hypertension.Kidney Int.2003; 63: 186–194.
57.
VaziriN.D., DingY.Effect of lead on nitric oxide synthase expression in coronary endothelial cells: role of superoxide.Hypertension.2001; 37: 223–226.
58.
VaziriN.D., DingY., NiZ.Compensatory up-regulation of nitric oxide synthase isoforms in lead-induced hypertension; reversal by a superoxide dismutase-mimetic drug.J Pharmacol Exp Ther.2001; 298: 678–685.
WilcoxC.S.Oxidative stress and nitric oxide deficiency in the kidney: a critical link to hypertension?Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.2005; 289: R913–R935.
61.
WilcoxC.S.Reactive oxygen species: role in blood pressure and kidney function.Curr Hypertens Rep.2002; 4: 160–166.
62.
BerryC., BrosnanM.J., FennellJ., HamiltonC.A., DominiczakA.F.Oxidative stress and vascular damage in hypertension.Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens.2001; 10: 247–255.
63.
TouyzR.M.Reactive oxygen species in vascular biology; role in arterial hypertension.Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther.2003; 1 :91–106.
64.
TouyzR.M.Oxidative stress and vascular damage in hypertension.Curr Hypertens Rep.2000; 2: 98–105.
65.
WilcoxC.S., WelchW.J.Oxidative stress: cause or consequence of hypertension?Exp Biol Med (Maywood).2001; 226: 619–620.
66.
LacyF., KailasamM.T., O'ConnorD.T., Schmid-SchönbeinG.W., ParnerR.J.Plasma hydrogen peroxide production in human essential hypertension. Role of heredity, gender, and ethnicity.Hypertension.2000; 36: 878–884.
67.
LacyF., O'ConnorD.T., Schmid-SchönbeinG.W.Plasma hydrogen peroxide production in hypertensives and normotensive subjects at genetic risk of hypertension.J Hypertens.1998; 16: 291–303.
68.
QureshiAl, SuriM.F., KirmaniJ.F., DivaniA.A., MohammadY.Is prehypertension a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases?Stroke.2005; 36: 1859–1863.
69.
VasanR.S., LarsonM.G., LeipE.P., KannelW.P., LevyD.Assessment of frequency of progression to hypertension in non-hypertensive subjects in the Framingham Heart Study.Lancet.2001; 358: 1682–1686.
70.
VasanR., BeiserA., SeshadriS.Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged woman and men: the Framingham Heart Study.JAMA.2002; 281: 1003–1010.
71.
GreenlundK.J., CroftJ.B., MensahG.A.Prevalence of heart disease and stroke risk factors in persons with pre-hypertension in the United States, 1999–2000.Arch Intern Med.2004; 164: 2113–2118.
72.
WiztumJ.L.The oxidative hypothesis of atherosclerosis.Lancet.1994; 344: 793–795.
73.
GriendlingK.K., FitzGeraldG.A.Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury: Part II: animal and human studies.Circulation.2003; 108: 2034–2040.
74.
LassegueB., ClempusR.E.Vascular NAD(P)H oxidase: specific features, expression, and regulation.Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.2003; 285: R277–R297.
75.
GriendlingK.K., SorescuD., Ushio-FukaiM.NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease.Circ Res.2000; 86: 494–501.
76.
HamiltonC.A., BrosnanM.J., Al-BennaS., BergG., DominiczakA.F.NAD(P)H oxidase inhibition improves endothelial function in rat and human blood vessels.Hypertension.2002; 40: 755–762.
77.
ReyF.E., CifuentesM.E., KiarashA., QuinnM.T., PaganoP.J.Novel competitive inhibitor of NAD(P)H oxidase assembly attenuates vascular O(2)(-) and systolic blood pressure in mice.Circ Res.2001; 89: 408–414.
78.
CayatteA.J., RupinA., Oliver-KrasinskiJ.S17834, a new inhibitor of cell adhesion and atherosclerosis that targets NADPH oxidase.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.2001; 21: 1577–1584.
79.
UngvariZ., CsiszarA., KaminskiP.M., WolinM.S., KollarA.Chronic high pressure-induced arterial oxidative stress: involvement of protein kinase C-dependent NAD(P)H oxidase and local rennin-angiotensin system.Am J Pathol.2004; 165: 219–226.
80.
WarnholtzA., NickenigG., SchulzE.Increased NADH-oxidase-mediated superoxide production in the early stages of atherosclerosis: evidence for involvement of the rennin-angiotensin system.Circulation.1999; 99: 2027–2033.
81.
SenC.K.Redox signaling and the emerging therapeutic potential of thiol antioxidants.Biochem Pharmacol.1998; 55: 1747–1758.
82.
DenekeS.M.Thiol-based antioxidants.Curr Top Cell Regul.2000; 36: 151–180.
83.
RanaS.V.S., AllenT., SinghR.Inevitable glutathione, then and now.Indian J Exp Biol.2002; 40: 706–716.
84.
ZafarullahM., LiW.Q., SylvesterJ., AhmadM.Molecular mechanisms of N-acetylcysteine actions.Cell Mol Life Sci.2003; 60: 6–20.
85.
ZimentI.Acetylcysteine: a drug that is much more than a mucokinetic.Biomed Pharmacother.1988; 42: 513–519.
86.
HaradaD., AnrakuM., FukudaH.Kinetic studies of covalent binding between N-acetyl-L-cysteine and human serum albumin through a mixed-disulfide using an N-methylpyridinium polymer-based column.Drug Metab Pharmacokinet.2004; 19: 297–302.
87.
AruomaO.I., HalliwellB., HoeyB.M., ButlerJ.The antioxidant action of N-acetylcysteine: its reaction with hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, superoxide, and hypochlorous acid.Free Radic Biol Med.1989; 6: 593–597.
88.
CotgreaveI.A.N-Acetylcysteine: pharmacological considerations and experimental and clinical applications.Adv Pharmacol.1997; 38: 205–227.
89.
WilliamsonJ.M., MeisterA.New substrates of 5-oxo-L-prolinase.J Biol Chem.1982; 257: 12039–12042.
90.
TsanM.F., DanisE.H., Del VecchioP.J., RosanoC.L.Enhancement of intracellular glutathione protects endothelial cells against oxidant damage.Biochem Biophys Res Commun.1985; 127: 270–276.
91.
VitaJ.A., FreiB., HolbrookM., GokeeN., LeafC., KeaneyJ.F.Jr.L-2-Oxothaiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid reverses endothelial dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease.J Clin Invest.1998; 101: 1408–1414.
MashiachE., SelaS., WeinsteinT., CohenH.I., ShashaS.M., KristalB.Mesan: a novel renoprotective antioxidant in ischaemic acute renal failure.Nephrol Dial Transplant.2001; 16: 542–551.
94.
WildA.C., MulcahyR.T.Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate up-regulates the expression of the genes encoding the catalytic and regulatory subunits of gama-glutamylcysteine synthetase and increases intracellular glutathione levels.Biochem J.1999; 338: 659–665.
95.
MaruiN., OffermannM.K., SwerlickR.Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) gene transcription and expression are regulated through an antioxidant-sensitive mechanism in human vascular endothelial cells.J Clin Invest.1993; 92: 1866–1874.
96.
HayakawaM., MiyashitaH., SakamotoI.Evidence that reactive oxygen species do not mediate NF-kappaB activation.EMBO J.2003; 22: 3356–3374.
97.
DayB.J.Catalytic antioxidants: a radical approach to new therapeutics.Drug Discov Today.2004; 9: 557–566.
98.
SalveminiD., WangZ.Q., ZweierJ.L.A nonpeptidyl mimic of superoxide dismutase with therapeutic activity in rats.Science.1999; 286: 304–306.
99.
TuderR.M., ZhenL., ChoC.Y.Oxidative stress and apoptosis interact and cause emphysema due to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor blockade.Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol.2003; 29: 88–97.
100.
MuscoliC., SaccoI., AlecceW.(2004). The protective effect of superoxide dismutase mimetic M40401 on balloon injury-related neointima formation: role of the lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1.J Pharmacol Exp Ther.2004; 311: 44–50.
101.
ChangL.Y., CrapoJ.D.Inhibition of airway inflammation and hyperreactivity by an antioxidant mimetic.Free Radic Biol Med.2002; 33: 379–386.
102.
SmithK.R., UyeminamiD.L., KodavantiU.P., CrapoJ.D., ChangL.Y., PinkertonK.E.Inhibition of tobacco smoke-induced lung inflammation by a catalytic antioxidant.Free Radic Biol Med.2002; 33: 1106–1114.
IzumiM., McDonaldM.C., SharpeM.A., ChatterjeeP.K., ThiemermannC.. (2002). Superoxide dismutase mimetics with catalase activity reduce the organ injury in hemorrhagic shock.Shock.2002; 18: 230–235.
105.
ChatterjeeP.K., PatelN.S., KvaleE.O.EUK-134 reduces renal dysfunction and injury caused by oxidative and nitrosative stress of the kidney.Am J Nephrol.2004; 24: 165–177.
106.
SharpeM.A., OllossonR., StewartV.C., ClarkJ.B.Oxidation of nitric oxide by oxomanganese-salen complexes: a new mechanism for cellular protection by superoxide dismutase/catalase mimetics.Biochem J.2002; 366: 97–107.
107.
OnumaS., NakanishiK.Superoxide dismutase mimetic tempol decreases blood pressure by increasing renal medullary blood flow in hyperinsulinemic-hypertensive rats.Metabolism.2004; 53: 1305–1308.
108.
SchnackenbergC.G., WelchW.J., WilcoxC.S.Normalization of blood pressure and renal vascular resistance in SHR with a membrane-permeable superoxide dismutase mimetic: role of nitric oxide.Hypertension.1998; 32: 59–64.
109.
BandyA.A., MarwahaA., LaxmiT.A., LokhandwalaM.F.Tempol reduces oxidative stress, improves insulin sensitivity, decreases renal dopamine D1 receptor hyper-phosphorylation, and restores D1 receptor-G-protein coupling and function in obese Zucker rats.Diabetes.2005; 54: 2219–2226.
110.
RakR., ChaoD.L., PlutaR.M., MitchellJ.B., OldfieldE.H., WatsonJ.C.Neuroprotection by the stable nitroxide tempol during reperfusion in a rat model of transient focal ischemia.J Neurosurg.2000; 92: 646–651.
111.
ScheweT.Molecular actions of ebselen—an antiinflammatory antioxidant.Gen Pharmcol.1995; 26: 1153–1169.
112.
SiesH.Ebselen.Methods Enzymol.1995; 252: 341–342.
113.
JozsefL., FilepJ.G.Selenium-containing compounds attenuate peroxynitrite-mediated NF-kappaB and AP-1 activation and interleukin-8 gene and protein expression in human leukocytes.Free Radic Biol Med.2003; 35: 1018–1027.
114.
CaiH., LiZ., DikalovS.NAD(P)H oxidase-derived hydrogen peroxide mediates endothelial nitric oxide production in response to angiotensin II.J Biol Chem.2002; 277: 48311–48317.
115.
SakumaS., FujimotoY., SakamotoY.Peroxynitirite induces the conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to oxidase in rabbit liver.Biochem Biophys Res Commun.1997; 230: 476–479.
116.
FriedlH.P., TillG.O., RyanU.S., WardP.A.Mediator-induced activation of xanthine oxidase in endothelial cells.FASEB J.1989; 3: 2512–2518.
117.
McNallyJ.S., DavisM.E., GiddensD.P.Role of xanthine oxidoreductase and NAD(P)H oxidase in endothelial superoxide production in response to oscillatory shear stress.Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.2003; 285: H2290–H2297.
118.
LandmesserU., SpiekermannS., DikalovS.Vascular oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure: role of xanthine-oxidase and extracellular superoxide dismutase.Circulation.2002; 106: 3073–3078.
FreudenbergerR.S., SchwarzR.P.Jr., BrownJ.Rational, design and organization of an efficacy and safety study of oxypurinol added to standard therapy in patients with NYHA class III–IV congestive heart failure.Expert Opin Investig Drugs.2004; 13: 1509–1516.
121.
NewazM.A., NawalN.N.A.Effect of α-tocopherol on lipid peroxidation and total antioxidant status in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Am J Hypertens.1998; 11: 1480–1485.
122.
ChenX., TouyzR.M., ParkJ.B., SchiffrinE.L.Antioxidant effects of vitamin C and E are associated with altered activation of vascular NADPH oxidase and superoxide dismutase in stroke-prone SHR.Hypertension.2001; 38: 606–611.
123.
VasdevS., GillV., ParaiS., GardagV.Dietary vitamin E and C supplementation prevents fructose induced hypertension in rats.Mol Cell Biochem.2002; 241: 107–114.
124.
XuA., VitaJ.A., KeaneyJ.F.Ascorbic acid and glutathione modulate the biological activity of S-nitrosoglutathione.Hypertension.2000; 36: 291–295.
125.
UlkerS., McKeownP.P., BayraktutanU.Vitamins reverse endothelial dysfunction through regulation of eNOS and NAD(P)H oxidase activities.Hypertension.2003; 41: 534–539.
126.
VaziriN.D., ZhenminN., OveisiF., Trnavsk-HobbD.L.Effect of antioxidant therapy on blood pressure and NO synthase expression in hypertensive rats.Hypertension.2000; 36: 957–964.
127.
VasdevS., GillV., ParaiS., GardagV.Dietary lipoic acid supplementation attenuates hypertension in Dahl salt sensitive rats.Mol Cell Biochem.2005; 275: 135–141.
128.
TakokaM., KobayashiY., YubaM., OhkitaM., MatsumuraY.Effects of alpha-lipoic acid on deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt-induced hypertension in rats.Eur J Pharmacol.2001; 424: 121–129.
SchneiderC.Chemistry and biology of vitamin E.Mol Nutr Food Res.2005; 49: 7–30.
133.
ZinggJ.M., AzziA.Non-antioxidant activities of vitamin E.Curr Med Chem.2004; 11: 1113–1133.
134.
WangX., QuinnP.J.Vitamin E and its function in membranes.Prog Lipid Res.1999; 38: 309–336.
135.
DasS., NesaretnamK., DasD.K.Tocotrienols in cardio-protection.Vitam Horm.2007; 76: 419–433.
136.
KumarK.V., DasU.N.Are free radicals involved in the pathobiology of human hypertension?Free Radic Res Commun.1993; 19: 59–66.
137.
WenY., KillaleaS., McGettiganP., FeelyJ.Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant vitamins C and E in hypertensive patients.Irish J Med Sci.1996; 165: 210–212.
138.
BendichA., GabrielE., MachlinL.J.Differences in vitamin E levels in tissues of the spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar-Kyoto rats.Proc Soc Exp Biol Med.1983; 172: 297–300.
139.
ItoH., ToriiM., SuzukiT.A comparative study on defense systems for lipid peroxidation by free radicals in spontaneously hypertensive, and normotensive rat myocardium.Comp Biochem Physiol.1992; 103: 37–40.
140.
NewazM.A., NawalN.N.A.Effect of α-tocopherol on lipid peroxidation, and total antioxidant status in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Am J Hypertens.1998; 11: 1480–1485.
141.
VasdevS., GillV., ParaiS., LongerichL., GadagV.Dietary vitamin E supplementation lowers blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Mol Cell Biochem.2002; 238: 111–117.
142.
BoshtamM., RafieuiM., SadhegiK., Sarraf-ZadeganN.Vitamin E can reduce blood pressure in mild hypertensives.Int J Vitam Nutr Res.2002; 72: 309–314.
143.
FaruqiR., de la MotteC., DiCorletoP.E.Alpha tocopherol inhibits agonist induced monocyte cell adhesion to cultured human endothelial cells.J Clin Invest.1994; 94: 592–600.
144.
CominaciniL., GarbinU., PasiniA.F.Antioxidants inhibit the expression of intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 induced by oxidized LDL on human umbilical vein endothelial cells.Free Radic Biol Med.1997; 22: 117–127.
145.
MartinA., FoxallT., BlumbergJ.B., MeydaniM.Vitamin E inhibits low-density lipoprotein-induced adhesion of monocytes to human aortic endothelial cells in vitro.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.1997; 17: 429–436.
146.
NishikimiM., YagiK.Biochemistry and molecular biology of ascorbic acid biosynthesis.Subcell Biochem.1996; 25: 17–39.
147.
DizdarogluM., JarugaP., BirinnciogluM., RodriguezH.Free-radical induced damage to DNA: mechanism and measurement.Free Radic Biol Med.2002; 32: 1102–1115.
148.
MilneG.L., MusiekE.S., MorrowJ.D.F2-isoprostanes as markers of oxidative stress in vivo: an overview.Biomarkers.2005; 10: S10–S23.
149.
MeisterA.Commentary on the antioxidant effects of ascorbic acid and glutathione.Biochem Pharmacol.1992; 44: 1905–1915.
150.
MeisterA.Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals.J Biol Chem.1994; 269: 9397–9400.
151.
JohnstonC.S., MeyerC.G., SrilakshmiJ.C.Vitamin C elevates red blood cell glutathione in healthy adults.Am J Clin Nutr.1993; 58: 103–105.
152.
CerielloA., GiuglianoD., QuatraroA., LefebvreP.J.Antioxidants show an anti-hypertensive effect in diabetic and hypertensive subjects.Clin Sci (Lond).1991; 81: 739–742.
ParikT., AllikmetsK., TeesaluR., ZilmerM.Evidence for oxidative stress in essential hypertension: perspective for antioxidant therapy.J Cardiovasc Risk.1996; 3: 49–54.
155.
MoranJ.P., CohenL., GreeneJ.M.Plasma ascorbic acid concentrations relate inversely to blood pressure in human subjects.Am J Clin Nutr.1993; 57: 213–217.
156.
DuffyS.J., GokceN., HolbrookM.Treatment of hypertension with ascorbic acid.Lancet.1999; 354: 2048–2049.
157.
HajjarI.M., GeorgeV, SasseE.A., KocharM.S.A randomized, double-blind study, control trial of vitamin C in the management of hypertension and lipids.Am J Ther.2002; 9: 289–293.
158.
BatesC.J., WalmsleyC.M., PrenticeA., FinchS.Does vitamin C improves reduce blood pressure? Results of a large study of people aged 65 or older.J Hypertens.1998; 16: 925–932.
159.
VasdevS., FordC.A., ParisS., LongerichL., GadagV.Dietary vitamin C supplementation lowers blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Mol Cell Biochem.2001; 218: 97–103.
160.
AkpaffiongM.J., TaylorA.A.Antihypertensive and vasodialator actions of antioxidants in spontaneously hypertensive rats.Am J Hypertens.1998; 11: 1450–1460.
161.
UlkerS., MckeownP.P., ByraktutanU.Vitamins reverse endothelial dysfunction through regulation of eNOS and NAD(P)H oxidase activities.Hypertension.2003; 41: 534–539.
162.
BohmF., SettergrenM., PernowJ.Vitamin C blocks vascular dysfunction and release of IL-6 induced endothelin-1 in humans in vivo.Atherosclerosis.2007; 190: 408–415.
163.
BilskaA., WlouekL.Lipoic acid-the drug of the future?Pharmcol Rep.2005; 57: 570–577.
164.
PackerL., WittE.H., TritschlerH.J.Alpha-Iipoic acid as a biological antioxidant.Free Radic Biol Med.1997; 19: 227–250.
165.
KaganV.E., ShvedovaA., SerbinovaE.Dihydrolipoic acid—a universal antioxidant both in the membrane and in aqueous phase. Reduction of peroxyl, ascorbyl and chromanoxyl radicals.Biochem Pharmacol.1992; 44: 1637–1649.
166.
KuntT., ForstT., WilhelmA.Alpha-lipoic acid reduces expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and endothelial adhesion of human monocytes after stimulation with advanced glycation end products.Clin Sci (Lond).1999; 96: 75–82.
167.
PackerL.Alpha-lipoic acid: a metabolic antioxidant which regulates NF-κB signal transduction and protects against oxidative injury.Drug Metab Rev.1998; 30: 245–275.
168.
HanD., HandelmanG., MarcocciL.Lipoic acid increases de novo synthesis of cellular glutathione by improving cystine utilization.Biofactors.1997; 6: 321–338.
169.
StephensN.G., ParsonsA., SchofieldP.M., KellyF., CheesemanK., MitchinsonM.J.Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS).Lancet.1996; 347: 781–786.
170.
BoazM., SmetanaS., WeinsteinT.Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomized placebo controlled trial.Lancet.2000; 356: 1213–1218.
171.
Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group.MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20, 536 high-risk individuals: a randomized placebo-controlled trial.Lancet.2002; 360: 23–33.
172.
MuntwylerJ., HennekensC.H., MansonJ.E., BuringJ.E., GazianoJ.M.Vitamin supplement use in a low-risk population of US male physicians and subsequent cardiovascular mortality.Arch Intern Med.2002; 162: 1472–1476.
173.
HodisH.N., MackW.J., LaBreeLAlpha-tocopherol supplementation in healthy individuals reduces low-density lipoprotein oxidation but not atherosclerosis: the Vitamin E Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (VEPS).Circulation.2002; 106: 1453–1459.
174.
GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators.Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial.Lancet.1999; 354: 447–455.
175.
BrownB.G., ZhaoX.Q., ChaitA.Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease.N Engl J Med.2001; 345: 1583–1592.
176.
MatthanN.R., GiovanniA., SchaeferE.J., BrownB.G., LichtensteinA.H.Impact of simvastatin, niacin, and/or antioxidants on cholesterol metabolism in CAD patients with low HDL.J Lipid Res.2003; 44: 800–806.
177.
de GaetanoG.Low-dose aspirin and vitamin E in people at cardiovascular risk: a randomized trial in general practice. Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project.Lancet.2001; 357: 89–95.
178.
SalonenR.M., NyyssonenK., KaikkonenJ.Six-year effect of combined vitamin C and E supplementation on atherosclerotic progression: the Antioxidant Supplementation in Atherosclerosis Prevention (ASAP) Study.Circulation.2003; 107: 947–953.
179.
GottoA.M.Antioxidants, statins, and atherosclerosis.J Am Coll Cardiol.2003; 41: 1205–1210.
180.
KhawK.T., BinghamS., WelchA.Relation between plasma ascorbic acid and mortality in men and women in EPIC-Norfolk prospective study: a prospective population study. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.Lancet.2001; 357: 657–663.
181.
RimmE.B., StampferM.J., AscherioA., GiovannucciE., ColditzG.A., WillettW.C.Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men.N Engl J Med.1993; 328: 1450–1456.
182.
StampferM.J., HennekensC.H., MansonJ.E., ColditzG.A., RosnerB., WillettW.C.Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women.N Engl J Med.1993; 328: 1444–1449.
183.
GriendlingK.K., FitzGeraldG.A.Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury: part II: animal and human studies.Circulation.2003; 108: 2034–2040.
184.
NessA.R., CheeD., ElliotP.Vitamin C and blood pressure—an overview.J Hum Hypertens.1997; 11: 343–350.
185.
OsilesiO., TroutD.L., OgunwoleJ.Blood pressure and plasma lipids during ascorbic acid supplementation in borderline hypertensive and normotensive adults.Nutr Res.1991; 11: 405–412.
186.
LovatL.B., LuY., PalmerA.J., EdwardsR., FletcherA.E., BulpittC.J.Double blind trial of vitamin C in elderly hypertensives.J Hum Hypertens.1993; 7: 403–405.
187.
GhoshS.K., EkpoE.B., ShahI.U., GirlingA.J., JenkinsC., SinclairA.J.A double blind placebo controlled parallel trial of vitamin C treatment in elderly patients with hypertension.Gerontology.1994; 40: 268–272.
188.
BarbagalloM., DominguezL.J., TagliamonteM.R., ResnickL.M., PaolissoG.Effects of vitamin E and glutathione on glucose metabolism: role of magnesium.Hypertension.1999; 34: 1002–1006.
189.
PalumboG., AvanziniF., AlliC.Effects of vitamin E on clinical and ambulatory blood pressure in treated hypertensive patients.Am J Hypertens.2000; 13: 564–567.
190.
IinoK., AbeK., KariyaS., KimuraH., KusabaT.A controlled, double-blind study of DL-alpha-tocopheryl nicotinate (Juvela-Nicotinate) for treatment of symptoms in hypertension and cerebral arteriosclerosis.Jpn Heart J.1977; 18: 277–283.
