Organizational theory scholars typically see organizations as race-neutral bureaucratic structures, while race and ethnicity scholars have largely neglected the role of organizations in the social construction of race. The theory developed in this article bridges these subfields, arguing that organizations are racial structures—cognitive schemas connecting organizational rules to social and material resources. I begin with the proposition that race is constitutive of organizational foundations, hierarchies, and processes. Next, I develop four tenets: (1) racialized organizations enhance or diminish the agency of racial groups; (2) racialized organizations legitimate the unequal distribution of resources; (3) Whiteness is a credential; and (4) the decoupling of formal rules from organizational practice is often racialized. I argue that racialization theory must account for how both state policy and individual attitudes are filtered through—and changed by—organizations. Seeing race as constitutive of organizations helps us better understand the formation and everyday functioning of organizations. Incorporating organizations into a structural theory of racial inequality can help us better understand stability, change, and the institutionalization of racial inequality. I conclude with an overview of internal and external sources of organizational change and a discussion of how the theory of racialized organizations may set the agenda for future research.
AllportGordon. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
7.
AndersonCarol. 2016. White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide. New York: Bloomsbury.
8.
AvilesNatalie B.Ariail ReedIsaac. 2017. “Ratio via Machina: Three Standards of Mechanistic Explanation in Sociology.” Sociological Methods & Research46(4):715–38.
9.
BaconDavid. 2008. Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants. Boston: Beacon Press.
10.
BakerLee D.1998. From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954. Berkeley: University of California Press.
11.
BaradaranMehrsa. 2017. The Color of Money: Black Banks and the Racial Wealth Gap. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
12.
BarthFredrik. 1969. “Introduction.” In Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference, edited by BarthF. London, UK: Allen & Unwin.
13.
BeckertSven. 2015. Empire of Cotton: A Global History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
14.
BellDerrick. 1980. “Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma.” Harvard Law Review93(3):518–33.
15.
BellJoyce M.2014. The Black Power Movement and American Social Work. New York: Columbia University Press.
16.
BellJoyce M.HartmannDouglas. 2007. “Diversity in Everyday Discourse: The Cultural Ambiguities and Consequences of ‘Happy Talk.’”American Sociological Review72(6):895–914.
17.
BendickMarcNunesAna P. 2012. “Developing the Research Basis for Controlling Bias in Hiring.” Journal of Social Issues68(2):238–62.
18.
BerreyEllen. 2015. The Enigma of Diversity: The Language of Race and the Limits of Racial Justice. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
19.
BertrandMarianneMullainathanSendhil. 2004. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review94(4):991–1013.
20.
BhattWasudha. 2013. “The Little Brown Woman: Gender Discrimination in American Medicine.” Gender & Society27(5):659–80.
21.
BlumerHerbert. 1958. “Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position.” Pacific Sociological Review1(1):3–7.
22.
Bonilla-SilvaEduardo. 1997. “Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation.” American Sociological Review62(3):465–80.
23.
Bonilla-SilvaEduardo. 2010. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States, 3rd ed.Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
24.
Bonilla-SilvaEduardo. 2015. “More than Prejudice: Restatement, Reflections, and New Directions in Critical Race Theory.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity1(1):73–87.
25.
Bonilla-SilvaEduardoLewisAmanda E.EmbrickDavid G. 2004. “‘I Did Not Get That Job Because of a Black Man . . .’: The Story Lines and Testimonies of Color-Blind Racism.” Sociological Forum19(4):555–81.
26.
BourdieuPierre. 1998. Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
27.
BraceyGlenn E.2016. “Black Movements Need Black Theorizing: Exposing Implicit Whiteness in Political Process Theory.” Sociological Focus49(1):11–27.
28.
BrodkinKaren. 1998. How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
29.
BrubakerRogers. 2009. “Ethnicity, Race, and Nationalism.” Annual Review of Sociology35:21–42.
30.
BrubakerRogersLovemanMaraStamatovPeter. 2004. “Ethnicity as Cognition.” Theory and Society33(1):31–64.
31.
BurkJamesEspinozaEvelyn. 2012. “Race Relations within the US Military.” Annual Review of Sociology38(1):401–22.
32.
BurkeMeghan A.2016. “New Frontiers in the Study of Color-Blind Racism: A Materialist Approach.” Social Currents3(2):103–9.
33.
CarbadoDevon W.HarrisCheryl I. 2008. “The New Racial Preferences.” California Law Review96(5):1130–214.
34.
CastillaEmilio J.2008. “Gender, Race, and Meritocracy in Organizational Careers.” American Journal of Sociology113(6):1479–526.
35.
CastillaEmilio J.BenardStephen. 2010. “The Paradox of Meritocracy in Organizations.” Administrative Science Quarterly55(4):543–76.
36.
CatanzariteLisa. 2002. “Dynamics of Segregation and Earnings in Brown-Collar Occupations.” Work and Occupations29(3):300–345.
37.
CatanzariteLisaTrimbleLindsey. 2008. “Latinos in the United States Labor Market.” Pp. 149–67 in Latinas/os in the United States: Changing the Face of América, edited by RodríguezH.SáenzR.MenjívarC. Boston, MA: Springer US.
38.
CohenLizabeth. 2003. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage Books.
39.
CollinsPatricia Hill. 1993. “Toward a New Vision: Race, Class, and Gender as Categories of Analysis and Connection.” Race, Sex & Class1(1):25–45.
40.
CollinsRandall. 1979. The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification. New York: Academic Press.
41.
CollinsSharon M.1997. Black Corporate Executives: The Making and Breaking of the Black Middle Class. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
42.
CollinsSharon M.2011. “Diversity in the Post Affirmative Action Labor Market: A Proxy for Racial Progress?”Critical Sociology37(5):521–40.
43.
CorrellShelley J.BenardStephenPaikIn. 2007. “Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?”American Journal of Sociology112(5):1297–339.
44.
CrenshawKimberle Williams. 1988. “Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law.” Harvard Law Review101(7):1331–87.
45.
CrenshawKimberle Williams. 2011. “Twenty Years of Critical Race Theory: Looking Back to Move Forward.” Connecticut Law Review43(5):1253–352.
46.
CrenshawKimberle WilliamsGotandaNeilPellerGaryThomasKendall, eds. 1995. Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New York: The New Press.
47.
DavisJames F.1991. Who Is Black? One Nation’s Definition. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
48.
DiMaggioPaul. 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology23(1):263–87.
49.
DiMaggioPaulPowellWalter. 1983. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review48(2):147–60.
50.
DiTomasoNancyPostCorinneParks-YancyRochelle. 2007. “Workforce Diversity and Inequality: Power, Status, and Numbers.” Annual Review of Sociology33(1):473–501.
51.
DobbinFrank. 2009. Inventing Equal Opportunity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
52.
EdelmanLauren B.KriegerLinda H.EliasonScott R.AlbistonCatherine R.MellemaVirginia. 2011. “When Organizations Rule: Judicial Deference to Institutionalized Employment Structures.” American Journal of Sociology117(3):888–954.
53.
EdinKathrynShaeferH. Luke. 2015. $2.00 a Day: Living on Almost Nothing in America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
54.
ElliottJames R.SmithRyan A. 2004. “Race, Gender, and Workplace Power.” American Sociological Review69(3):365–86.
55.
EmbrickDavid G.2008. “The Diversity Ideology: Keeping Major Transnational Corporations White and Male in an Era of Globalization.” Pp. 23–42 in Globalization and America: Race, Human Rights, and Inequality, edited by HatteryA. J.EmbrickD. G.SmithE. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
56.
EmbrickDavid G.2011. “The Diversity Ideology in the Business World: A New Oppression for a New Age.” Critical Sociology37(5):541–56.
57.
EmirbayerMustafaDesmondMatthew. 2015. The Racial Order. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
58.
EmirbayerMustafaGoodwinJeff. 1994. “Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency.” American Journal of Sociology99(6):1411–54.
59.
EmirbayerMustafaMischeAnn. 1998. “What Is Agency?”American Journal of Sociology103(4):962–1023.
60.
EvansLouwandaLeo MooreWendy. 2015. “Impossible Burdens: White Institutions, Emotional Labor, and Micro-Resistance.” Social Problems62(3):439–54.
61.
FeaginJoe. 2000. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. New York: Routledge.
62.
FeaginJoeEliasSean. 2013. “Rethinking Racial Formation Theory: A Systemic Racism Critique.” Ethnic and Racial Studies36(6):931–60.
63.
FeldmanMartha S.PentlandBrian T. 2003. “Reconceptualizing Organizational Routines as a Source of Flexibility and Change.” Administrative Science Quarterly48(1):94–118.
64.
FergusonJohn-PaulKoningRembrand. 2018. “Firm Turnover and the Return of Racial Establishment Segregation.” American Sociological Review83(3):445–74.
65.
FineGary Alan. 2012. “Group Culture and the Interaction Order: Local Sociology on the Meso-Level.” Annual Review of Sociology38:159–79.
66.
FitzGeraldDavid ScottCook-MartinDavid. 2014. Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
67.
FrazierFranklin E.1957. Black Bourgeoisie. New York: The Free Press.
68.
FredricksonGeorge M.1982. White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History. New York: Oxford University Press.
69.
GagliardiJonathan S.EspinosaLorelle L.TurkJonathan M.TaylorMorgan. 2017. “American College President Study.” Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
70.
GansHerbert J.2017. “Racialization and Racialization Research.” Ethnic and Racial Studies40(3):341–52.
71.
Golash-BozaTanya. 2016. “A Critical and Comprehensive Sociological Theory of Race.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity2(2):129–41.
72.
GrossNeil. 2009. “A Pragmatist Theory of Social Mechanisms.” American Sociological Review74(3):358–79.
73.
HallettTimVentrescaMarc J. 2006. “Inhabited Institutions: Social Interactions and Organizational Forms in Gouldner’s ‘Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy.’”Theory and Society35(2):213–36.
74.
HamiltonDarrickDarityWilliam A.Jr.2017. “The Political Economy of Education, Financial Literacy, and the Racial Wealth Gap.” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review99(1):59–76.
75.
HarrisCheryl I.1995. “Whiteness as Property.” Pp. 276–91 in Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement, edited by CrenshawK. W.GotandaN.PellerG.ThomasK. New York: The New Press.
76.
HaysSharon. 1994. “Structure and Agency and the Sticky Problem of Culture.” Sociological Theory12(1):57–72.
77.
HeckmanJames J.1998. “Detecting Discrimination.” Journal of Economic Perspectives12(2):101–16.
78.
HitlinStevenElderGlen H. 2007. “Time, Self, and the Curiously Abstract Concept of Agency.” Sociological Theory25(2):170–91.
79.
HochschildArlie Russell. 1979. “Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure.” American Journal of Sociology85(3):551–75.
80.
HochschildArlie Russell. 2016. Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right. New York: The New Press.
81.
HoffmanBeatrix. 2003. “Scientific Racism, Insurance, and Opposition to the Welfare State: Fredrick L. Hoffman’s Transatlantic Journey.” The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era2(2):150–90.
82.
HuffmanMatt L.CohenPhilip N. 2004. “Racial Wage Inequality: Job Segregation and Devaluation across U.S. Labor Markets.” American Journal of Sociology109(4):902–36.
83.
IoanidePaula. 2015. The Emotional Politics of Racism: How Feelings Trump Facts in an Era of Colorblindness. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
84.
JimenezTomás R.HorowitzAdam L. 2013. “When White Is Just Alright: How Immigrants Redefine Achievement and Reconfigure the Ethnoracial Hierarchy.” American Sociological Review78(5):849–71.
85.
JungMoon-Kie. 2015. Beneath the Surface of White Supremacy: Denaturalizing U.S. Racisms Past and Present. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
86.
KellyErinDobbinFrank. 1998. “How Affirmative Action Became Diversity Management: Employer Response to Antidiscrimination Law, 1961 to 1996.” American Behavioral Scientist41(7):960–84.
87.
KendiIbram. 2016. Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America. New York: Nation Books.
88.
KimChangHwanSakamotoArthur. 2010. “Have Asian American Men Achieved Labor Market Parity with White Men?”American Sociological Review75(6):934–57.
89.
KwateNaa Oyo A.2017. “The Race Against Time: Lived Time, Time Loss, and Black Health Opportunity.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race14(2):497–514.
90.
LamontMichèleBeljeanStefanClairMatthew. 2014. “What Is Missing? Cultural Processes and Causal Pathways to Inequality.” Socio-Economic Review12(3):573–608.
91.
LeongNancy. 2013. “Racial Capitalism.” Harvard Law Review126(8):2151–226.
92.
LewisAmanda E.2004. “‘What Group?’ Studying Whites and Whiteness in the Era of ‘Color-Blindness.’”Sociological Theory22(4):623–46.
93.
LewisAmanda E.DiamondJohn B. 2015. Despite the Best Intentions: How Racial Inequality Thrives in Good Schools. New York: Oxford University Press.
94.
LipskyMichael. 2010. Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services, 30th anniversary ed. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
95.
LopezIan F. Haney. 2000. “Institutional Racism: Judicial Conduct and a New Theory of Racial Discrimination.” Yale Law Journal109(8):1717–884.
96.
MahadeoRahsaan. 2018. “Why Is the Time Always Right for White and Wrong for Us? How Racialized Youth Make Sense of Whiteness and Temporal Inequality.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity. Online first (https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649218770469).
97.
MaldonadoMarta Maria. 2009. “‘It Is Their Nature to Do Menial Labour’: The Racialization of ‘Latino/a Workers’ by Agricultural Employers.” Ethnic and Racial Studies32(6):1017–36.
98.
MarableManning. 2000. How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America: Problems in Race, Political Economy, and Society. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
99.
MarmotMichaelDaceyGeorgeStansfeldStephenPatelChandraNorthFionaHeadJenny. 1991. “Health Inequalities among British Civil Servants: The Whitehall II Study.” The Lancet337(8754):1387–93.
100.
MartinAndrew W.LopezSteven H.RoscignoVincent J.HodsonRandy. 2012. “Against the Rules: Synthesizing Types and Processes of Bureaucratic Rule-Breaking.” Academy of Management Review38(4):550–74.
101.
MartinPatricia Yancey. 2004. “Gender as Social Institution.” Social Forces82(4):1249–73.
102.
MarxKarl. 1977. Capital, Vol. 1. Translated by FowkesBen. New York: Vintage.
103.
MasseyDouglas S.DentonNancy A. 1993. American Apartheid. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
104.
McLeodJane D.LivelyKathryn J. 2006. “Social Structure and Personality.” Pp. 77–102 in Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by J. Delamater. Boston, MA: Springer.
105.
MeyerJohn W.BromleyPatricia. 2014. “The Worldwide Expansion of ‘Organization.’”Sociological Theory31(4):366–89.
106.
MeyerJohn W.RowanBrian. 1977. “Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony.” American Journal of Sociology83(2):340–63.
107.
MillsCharles W.1997. The Racial Contract. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
108.
MillsCharles W.2014. “White Time: The Chronic Injustice of Ideal Theory.” Du Bois Review11(1):27–42.
109.
MooreWendy Leo. 2008. Reproducing Racism: White Space, Elite Law Schools, and Racial Inequality. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
110.
MooreWendy LeoBellJoyce M. 2011. “Maneuvers of Whiteness: ‘Diversity’ as a Mechanism of Retrenchment in the Affirmative Action Discourse.” Critical Sociology37(5):597–613.
111.
MoraG. Cristina. 2014. “Cross-Field Effects and Ethnic Classification: The Institutionalization of Hispanic Panethnicity, 1965 to 1990.” American Sociological Review79(2):183–210.
112.
MorrisAldon. 2015. The Scholar Denied: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Birth of Modern Sociology. Oakland: University of California Press.
113.
MossPhilipTillyChris. 2003. Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill and Hiring in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
114.
MuellerJennifer. 2017. “Producing Colorblindness: Everyday Mechanisms of White Ignorance.” Social Problems64(2):219–38.
115.
NagelJoane. 1995. “American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Politics and the Resurgence of Identity.” American Sociological Review60(6):947–65.
116.
NeckermanKathryn M.KirschenmanJoleen. 1991. “Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers.” Social Problems38(4):433–47.
117.
NgaiMae M.2003. “The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy.” Law and History Review21(1):69–107.
118.
NkomoStella M.1992. “The Emperor Has No Clothes: Rewriting ‘Race in Organizations.’”Academy of Management Review17(3):487–513.
119.
NoblesMelissa. 2000. Shades of Citizenship: Race and the Census in Modern Politics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
120.
OmiMichaelWinantHoward. 2015. Racial Formation in the United States, 3rd ed.New York: Routledge.
121.
PagerDevah. 2003. “The Mark of a Criminal Record.” American Journal of Sociology108(5):937–75.
122.
PagerDevah. 2007. Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
123.
PagerDevahKarafinDiana. 2009. “Bayesian Bigot? Statistical Discrimination, Stereotypes, and Employer Decision Making.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science621(1):70–93.
124.
PagerDevahWesternBruceBonikowskiBart. 2009. “Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment.” American Sociological Review74(5):777–99.
125.
ParkerChristopher S.2009. Fighting for Democracy: Black Veterans and the Struggle against White Supremacy in the Postwar South. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
126.
PerrowCharles. 1979. Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay, 2nd ed.Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman and Company.
127.
PerrowCharles. 1991. “A Society of Organizations.” Theory and Society20(6):725–62.
128.
PerrowCharles. 2002. Organizing America: Wealth, Power, and the Origins of Corporate Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
129.
QuillianLincolnPagerDevahHexelOleMidtbøenArnfinn H. 2017. “Meta-Analysis of Field Experiments Shows No Change in Racial Discrimination in Hiring over Time.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences114(41):10870–75.
130.
RayVictorPurifoyDanielle. N.d. “The Color-Blind Organization.”
131.
RayVictorSeamsterLouise. 2016. “Rethinking Racial Progress: A Response to Wimmer.” Ethnic and Racial Studies39(8):1361–69.
132.
ReskinBarbara. 2003. “Including Mechanisms in Our Models of Ascriptive Inequality.” Annual Review of Sociology68(1):1–21.
133.
RobertsDorothy. 2013. Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-create Race in the Twenty-First Century. New York: The New Press.
134.
RodriguezClara E.2000. Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States. New York: New York University Press.
135.
RoedigerDavid R.1999. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the Working Class. New York: Verso.
136.
RoedigerDavid R.EschElizabeth D. 2012. The Production of Difference: Race and the Management of Labor in US History. New York: Oxford University Press.
137.
RojasFabio. 2007. From Black Power to Black Studies: How a Radical Social Movement Became an Academic Discipline. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
138.
RojasFabio. 2017. “Race and Institutionalism.” Pp. 786–807 in The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism, edited by GreenwoodR.OliverC.LawrenceT. B.MeyerR. E. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
139.
RoscignoVincent. 2007. The Face of Discrimination: How Race and Gender Impact Work and Home Lives. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield.
140.
RosenthalCaitlin Clare. 2012. “From Memory to Mastery: Accounting for Control in America, 1750–1880.” ProQuest Dissertations and Theses263.
RothWendy D.2016. “The Multiple Dimensions of Race.” Ethnic and Racial Studies39(8):1310–38.
143.
RoyKevin M.TubbsCarolyn Y.BurtonLinda M. 2004. “Don’t Have No Time: Daily Rhythms and the Organization of Time for Low-Income Families.” Family Relations53(2):168–78.
144.
RuefMartin. 2014. Between Slavery and Capitalism: The Legacy of Emancipation in the American South. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
145.
SakamotoArthurGoyetteKimberlyKimChangHwan. 2009. “Socioeconomic Attainments of Asian Americans.” Annual Review of Sociology35(1):255–76.
146.
SamsonFrank L.2013. “Multiple Group Threat and Malleable White Attitudes towards Academic Merit.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race10(1):233–60.
147.
SenMayaWasowOmar. 2016. “Race as a Bundle of Sticks: Designs That Estimate Effects of Seemingly Immutable Characteristics.” Annual Review of Political Science19(1):499–522.
148.
SewellAbigail A.2016. “The Racism-Race Reification Process: A Mesolevel Political Economic Framework for Understanding Racial Health Disparities.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity2(4):402–32.
149.
SewellWilliam H.1992. “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology98(1):1–29.
150.
SkrentnyJohn D.2013. After Civil Rights: Racial Realism in the New American Workplace. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
151.
SpencerSteven J.SteeleClaude M.QuinnDiane M. 1999. “Stereotype Threat and Women’s Math Performance.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology35(1):4–28.
152.
StainbackKevinTomaskovic-DeveyDonald. 2012. Documenting Desegregation: Racial and Gender Segregation in Private Sector Employment since the Civil Rights Act. Kindle Edition. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
153.
SteeleClaude M.1997. “A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance.” American Psychologist52(6):613–29.
154.
SteinbergSteven. 2001. Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy. Boston: Beacon Press.
155.
StinchcombeArthur. 1965. “Social Structure and Organizations.” Pp. 142–93 in Handbook of Organizations, edited by MarchJ. G. Chicago: Rand McNally.
156.
StoneJohn. 2003. “Max Weber on Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism.” Pp. 28–42 in Race and Ethnicity: Comparative and Theoretical Approaches, edited by StoneJ.DennisR. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
157.
SueDerald WingCapodilupoChristina M.TorinoGina C.BucceriJennifer M.HolderAisha M. B.NadalKevin L.EsquilinMarta. 2007. “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice.” American Psychologist62(4):271–86.
158.
SugrueThomas. 1996. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
159.
TavoryIddoEliasophNina. 2013. “Coordinating Futures: Toward a Theory of Anticipation.” American Journal of Sociology118(4):908–42.
160.
TellesEdward. 2014. Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
161.
ThomasWilliam I.ThomasDorothy S. 1928. The Child in America: Behavior Problems and Programs. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
162.
ThornhillTed. 2015. “Racial Salience and the Consequences of Making White People Uncomfortable: Intra-Racial Discrimination, Racial Screening, and the Maintenance of White Supremacy.” Sociology Compass9(8):694–703.
163.
ThorntonPatricia H.OcasioWilliam. 1999. “Institutional Logics and the Historical Contingency of Power in Organizations: Executive Succession in the Higher Education Publishing Industry, 1958–1990.” American Journal of Sociology105(3):801–43.
164.
Tomaskovic-DeveyDonald. 1993. Gender and Race Inequality at Work: The Sources and Consequences of Job Segregation. Ithaca, NY: ILR press.
165.
TureKwameHamiltonCharles V. 1967. Black Power: The Politics of Liberation. New York: Random House.
166.
TurnerMargery AustinSantosRobLevyDiane K.WissokerDougArandaClaudiaPitingoloRob. 2013. “Housing Discrimination against Racial and Ethnic Minorities 2012.” Washington, DC: US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.
167.
TysonKarolyn. 2011. Integration Interrupted: Tracking, Black Students, and Acting White After Brown. New York: Oxford University Press.
168.
WeberMax. 1978. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Berkeley: University of California Press.
169.
WilliamsChristine L.1992. “The Glass Escalator: Hidden Advantages for Men in the ‘Female’ Professions.” Social Problems39(3):253–67.
170.
WilliamsEric. [1944] 1994. Capitalism and Slavery. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
171.
WilliamsonJoy Ann. 2004. “‘This Has Been Quite a Year for Heads Falling’: Institutional Autonomy in the Civil Rights Era.” History of Education Quarterly44(4):554–76.
172.
WilsonGeorgeRoscignoVincent J.HuffmanMatt. 2015. “Racial Income Inequality and Public Sector Privatization.” Social Problems62(2):163–85.
173.
WilsonWilliam Julius. 1978. The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
174.
WilsonWilliam Julius. 1996. When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Vintage Books.
175.
WimmerAndreas. 2008. “The Making and Unmaking of Ethnic Boundaries: A Multilevel Process Theory.” American Journal of Sociology113(4):970–1022.
176.
WimmerAndreas. 2015. “Race-Centrism: A Critique and a Research Agenda.” Ethnic and Racial Studies38(13):2186–205.
177.
WinantHoward. 2000. “Race and Race Theory.” Annual Review of Sociology26:169–85.
178.
WingfieldAdia Harvey. 2009. “Racializing the Glass Escalator: Reconsidering Men’s Experiences with Women’s Work.” Gender & Society23(1):5–26.
179.
WingfieldAdia Harvey. 2010. “Are Some Emotions Marked ‘Whites Only’? Racialized Feeling Rules in Professional Workplaces.” Social Problems57(2):251–68.
180.
WingfieldAdia HarveySkeete AlstonReńee. 2013. “Maintaining Hierarchies in Predominantly White Organizations: A Theory of Racial Tasks.” American Behavioral Scientist58(2):274–87.
WootenMelissa E.2015. In the Face of Inequality: How Black Colleges Adapt. Albany: State University of New York Press.
183.
WootenMelissa E.CoulouteLucius. 2017. “The Production of Racial Inequality within and among Organizations.” Sociology Compass11(1):1–10 e12446.
184.
XMalcolmHaleyAlex. 1965. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Grove Press.
185.
ZakrisonTanya L.PuyanaJuan CarlosBrittL. D. 2017. “Gun Violence Is Structural Violence: Our Role as Trauma Surgeons.” Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery82(1):224.
186.
ZuberiTukufu. 2001. Thicker Than Blood: How Racial Statistics Lie. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
