Are men and women categorized differently for similar sexual behavior? Building on theories of gender, sexuality, and status, we introduce the concept of precarious sexuality to suggest that men’s—but not women’s—heterosexuality is an especially privileged identity that is easily lost. We test our hypotheses in a series of survey experiments describing a person who has a sexual experience conflicting with their sexual history. We find that a single same-sex sexual encounter leads an observer to question a heterosexual man’s sexual orientation to a greater extent than that of a heterosexual woman in a similar situation. We also find that a different-sex sexual encounter is more likely to change others’ perceptions of a lesbian woman’s sexual orientation—compared to perceptions of a gay man’s sexual orientation. In two conceptual replications, we vary the level of intimacy of the sexual encounter and find consistent evidence for our idea of precarious sexuality for heterosexual men. We close with a general discussion of how status beliefs influence categorization processes and with suggestions for extending our theoretical propositions to other categories beyond those of sexual orientation.
AndersonCameronSrivastavaSanjayBeerJennifer S.SpataroSandra E.ChatmanJennifer A.2006. “Knowing Your Place: Self-Perceptions of Status in Face-to-Face Groups.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology91(6):1094–1110.
2.
BaumeisterRoy F.2000. “Gender Differences in Erotic Plasticity: The Female Sex Drive as Socially Flexible and Responsive.” Psychological Bulletin126(3):347–74.
3.
BergerJosephWebsterMurrayJr.2006. “Expectations, Status, and Behavior.” Pp. 268–300 in Contemporary Social Psychological Theories, edited by BurkeP. J.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
4.
BrescollVictoria L.UhlmannEric LuisMoss-RacusinCorinneSarnellLonnie2012. “Masculinity, Status, and Subordination: Why Working for a Gender Stereotype Violator Causes Men to Lose Status.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology48:354–57.
5.
CoffmanKatherine B.CoffmanLucas C.EricsonKeith M.2016. “The Size of the LGBT Population and the Magnitude of Anti-Gay Sentiment Are Substantially Underestimated.” Management Science63(10):3168–86.
6.
ComptonD’LaneLoveTony P.SellJane2012. “Developing and Assessing Intercoder Reliability in Studies of Group Interaction.” Sociological Methodology42(1):348–64.
7.
ConnellRaewyn1987. Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
ConnellRaewynMesserschmidtJames W.2005. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender & Society19(6):829–59.
10.
CorrellShelley J.RidgewayCecilia L.2003. “Expectation States Theory.” Pp. 29–51 in the Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by DelamaterJ.New York: Kluwer Academic.
11.
DiamondLisa M.2003. “Was It a Phase? Young Women’s Relinquishment of Lesbian/Bisexual Identities over a 5-year Period.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology84(2):352–64.
12.
DoanLongLoehrAnnaliseMillerLisa R.2014. “Formal Rights and Informal Privileges for Same-Sex Couples: Evidence from a National Survey Experiment.” American Sociological Review79(6):1172–95.
13.
DodgeBrianReeceMichaelGebhardPaul H.2008. “Kinsey and Beyond: Past, Present, and Future Considerations for Research on Male Bisexuality.” Journal of Bisexuality8(3–4):175–89.
14.
DouglasMary1966. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. New York: Routledge.
15.
DurandRodolphieKrempPierre-Antoine2016. “Classic Deviation: Organizational and Individual Status as Antecedents of Conformity.” Academy of Management Journal59(1):65–89.
16.
FiskeSusan T.CuddyAmy J. C.GlickPeterXuJun2002. “A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology82(6):878–902.
17.
FoschiMartha2000. “Double Standards for Competence: Theory and Research.” Annual Review of Sociology26:21–42.
18.
FreeseJeremyDruckmanJames, Principal Investigators. 2015. Data Collected By Time-Sharing Experiments for the Social Sciences. NSF Grant0818839.
19.
GamsonJoshuaMoonDawne2004. “The Sociology of Sexualities: Queer and Beyond.” Annual Review of Sociology30:47–64.
20.
GormanBridget K.DenneyJustin T.DowdyHilaryMedeirosRose Anne2015. “A New Piece of the Puzzle: Sexual Orientation, Gender, and Physical Health Status.” Demography52(4):1357–82.
21.
HerekGregory M.2002. “Heterosexuals’ Attitudes toward Bisexual Men and Women in the United States.” Journal of Sex Research39(4):264–74.
22.
HerekGregory M.GillisJ. RoyCoganJeanine C.2009. “Internalized Stigma among Sexual Minority Adults: Insights From a Social Psychological Perspective.” Journal of Counseling Psychology56(1):32–43.
23.
HerekGregory M.McLemoreKevin A.2013. “Sexual Prejudice.” Annual Review of Psychology64:309–333.
24.
HipesCrosbyLucasJeffrey W.KleykampMeredith2015. “Status- and Stigma-Related Consequences of Military Service and PTSD: Evidence from a Laboratory Experiment.” Armed Forces & Society41(3):477–95.
25.
HolmanAmandaSillarsAlan2012. “Talk About ‘Hooking Up’: The Influence of College Student Social Networks on Nonrelationship Sex.” Health Communication27(2):205–216.
HuntMatthew O.JacksonPamela BraboyKyeSamuel H.PowellBrianSteelmanLala Carr2013. “Still Color-Blind? The Treatment of Race, Ethnicity, Intersectionality, & Sexuality in Sociological Social Psychology.” Pp. 21–45 in Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 30, edited by ThyeS. R.LawlerE. J.Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.
28.
JacksonSteviScottSue2010. Theorizing Sexuality. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
29.
JohnsonCathryn1995. “Sexual Orientation as a Diffuse Status Characteristic: Implications for Small Group Interaction.” Pp. 115–37 in Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 12, edited by LawlerE. J.Greenwich, CT: JAI.
30.
KhannaNikki2010. “‘If You’re Half Black, You’re Just Black’: Reflected Appraisals and the Persistence of the One-Drop Rule.” Sociological Quarterly51(1):96–121.
31.
KlawitterMarieka2014. “Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Sexual Orientation on Earnings.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review54:4–32.
32.
LaumannEdward O.GagnonJohn H.MichaelRobert T.MichaelsStuart1994. The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
33.
LaxJeffery R.PhillipsJustin H.2009. “Gay Rights in the States: Public Opinion and Policy Responsiveness.” American Political Science Review103(3):367–86.
34.
LeeJenniferBeanFrank D.2004. “America’s Changing Color Lines: Immigration, Race/Ethnicity, and Multiracial Identification.” Annual Review of Sociology30:221–42.
35.
LucasJeffery W.PhelanJo C.2012. “Stigma and Status: The Interrelation of Two Theoretical Perspectives.” Social Psychology Quarterly75(4):310–33.
MizeTrenton D.2015. “What Social Psychology Can Contribute to the Study of Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation.” Sociology Compass9(12):1066–81.
38.
MizeTrenton D.2016. “Sexual Orientation in the Labor Market.” American Sociological Review81(6):1132–60.
39.
MizeTrenton D.2017. “Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation in the Labor Market.” PhD dissertation, Department of Sociology, Indiana University.
40.
MizeTrenton D.ManagoBianca Forthcoming. “The Stereotype Content of Sexual Orientation.” Social Currents.
41.
Moss-RacusinCorrinePhelanJulieRudmanLaurie2010. “When Men Break the Gender Rules: Status Incongruity and Backlash against Modest Men.” Psychology of Men & Masculinity11(2):140–51.
42.
MullinixKevin J.LeeperThomas J.DruckmanJames N.FreeseJeremey2015. “The Generalizability of Survey Experiments.” Journal of Experimental Political Science2(2):109–138.
43.
MutzDiana2011. Population-Based Survey Experiments. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
44.
PaolacciGabrieleChandlerJessIperiotisPanagiotis G.2010. “Running Experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk.” Judgment and Decision Making5(5):411–19.
45.
PascoeC. J.2007. Dude, You’re a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School. Berkley: University of California Press.
46.
PedullaDavid S.2014. “The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes: Race, Sexual Orientation, and the Job Application Process.” Social Psychology Quarterly77(1):75–94.
47.
PeplauLetita Anne2003. “Human Sexuality: How Do Men and Women Differ?” Current Directions in Psychological Science12(2):37–40.
48.
PeplauLetitia AnneFingerhutAdam2004. “The Paradox of the Lesbian Worker.” Journal of Social Issues60(4):719–35.
49.
PhillipsDamon J.TurcoCatherin J.ZuckermanEzra W.2013. “Betrayal as Market Barrier: Identity-Based Limits to Diversification among High-Status Corporate Law Firms.” American Journal of Sociology118(4):1023–54.
50.
PhillipsDamon J.ZuckermanEzra W.2001. “Middle-Status Conformity: Theoretical Restatement and Empirical Demonstration in Two Markets.” American Journal of Sociology107(2):379–429.
51.
PodolnyJoel M.2005. Status Signals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
52.
PodolnyJoel M.PhillipsDamon J.1996. “The Dynamics of Organizational Status.” Individual and Corporate Change5(2):453–71.
53.
PowellBrianBolzendahlCatherineGeistClaudiaSteelmanLala Carr2010. Counted Out: Same-Sex Relations and Americans’ Definition of Family. New York: Russell Sage.
54.
PowellBrianQuadlinNatasha YurkPizmony-LevyOren2015. “Public Opinion, the Courts, and Same-Sex Marriage: Four Lessons Learned.” Social Currents1(4):1–10.
55.
RandDavid G.2012. “The Promise of Mechanical Turk: How Online Labor Markets Can Help Theorists Run Behavioral Experiments.” Journal of Theoretical Biology299:172–79.
56.
RidgewayCecilia L.2006. “Status Construction Theory.” Pp. 301–323 in Handbook of Contemporary Social Psychological Theories, edited by BurkeP.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.
57.
RidgewayCecilia L.2011. Framed by Gender: How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World. New York: Oxford University Press.
58.
RidgewayCecilia L.BoyleElizabeth HegerKuipersKathy J.RobinsonDawn T.1998. “How Do Status Beliefs Develop? The Role of Resources and Interactional Experience.” American Sociological Review63(3):331–50.
59.
RidgewayCecilia L.CorrellShelley J.2004. “Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations.” Gender & Society18(4):510–31.
60.
RidgewayCecilia L.LiYan E.EricksonKristan G.BackorKristenTinklerJustine E.2009. “How Easily Does a Social Difference Become a Status Distinction? Gender Matters.” American Sociological Review74(1):44–62.
61.
RidgewayCecilia L.NakagawaSandra2017. “Is Deference the Price of Being Seen as Reasonable? How Status Hierarchies Incentivize Acceptance of Low Status.” Social Psychology Quarterly80(2):132–52.
62.
RubinGayle1984. “Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality.” Pp. 100–133 in Social Perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Reader, edited by NardiP. M.SchneiderB. E.New York: Routledge.
63.
RudmanLaurieMoss-RacusinCorrinePhelanJulieNautsSanne2012. “Status Incongruity and Backlash Effects: Defending the Gender Hierarchy Motivates Prejudice against Female Leaders.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology48(1):165–79.
64.
RuleNicholas O.AmbadyNaliniAdamsReginald B.Jr.MacraeC. Neil2008. “Accuracy and Awareness in the Perception and Categorization of Male Sexual Orientation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology95(5):1019–28.
65.
RuleNicholas O.AmbadyNaliniHallettKatherine C.2009. “Female Sexual Orientation Is Perceived Accurately, Rapidly, and Automatically from the Face and its Features.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology45:1245–51.
SchrockDouglasSchwalbeMichael2009. “Men, Masculinity, and Manhood Acts.” Annual Review of Sociology35:277–95.
68.
SharkeyAmanda J.2014. “Categories and Organizational Status: The Role of Industry Status in the Response to Organizational Deviance.” American Journal of Sociology119(5):1380–1433.
69.
TilcsikAndrás2011. “Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology117(2):586–626.
70.
VandelloJosephBossonJennifer K.CohenDovBurnafordRochell M.WeaverJohnathan R.2008. “Precarious Manhood.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology95(6):1325–39.
71.
WebsterMurrayJr.HysomStuart J.FullmerElise M.1998. “Sexual Orientation and Occupation as Status.” Pp. 1–21 in Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 15, edited by SkvoretzJ.SzmatkaJ.New York: JAI Press.
72.
WeinbergJill D.FreeseJeremyMcElhattanDavid2014. “Comparing Data Characteristics and Results of an Online Factorial Survey between a Population-Based and a Crowdsource-Recruited Sample.” Sociological Science1:292–310.
73.
WillerRobbRogalinChristabel L.ConlonBridgetWojnowiczMichael T.2013. “Overdoing Gender: A Test of the Masculine Overcompensation Thesis.” American Journal of Sociology118:980–1022.
74.
WorthenMeredith G. F.2013. “An Argument for Separate Analyses of Attitudes toward Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual Men, Bisexual Women, MtF, and FtM Transgender Individuals.” Sex Roles68(11–12):703–723.
75.
YostMegan R.ThomasGenea D.2012. “Gender and Binegativity: Men’s and Women’s Attitudes toward Male and Female Bisexuals.” Archives of Sexual Behavior41(3):691–702.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
