Numerous studies indicate that civil society organizations create cultural change by deploying mainstream messages that resonate with prevailing discursive themes. Yet these case studies of highly influential organizations obscure the much larger population that have little or no impact. It is therefore unclear whether civil society organizations create cultural change by deploying mainstream discourses or if they become part of the mainstream because of their success. I present an evolutionary theory of how discursive fields settle after major historical ruptures that highlights framing, social networks, and emotional energy. To illustrate this theory, I use plagiarism detection software to compare 1,084 press releases about Muslims produced by 120 civil society organizations to 50,407 newspaper articles and television transcripts produced between 2001 and 2008. Although most organizations deployed pro-Muslim discourses after the September 11th attacks, I show that anti-Muslim fringe organizations dominated the mass media via displays of fear and anger. Institutional amplification of this emotional energy, I argue, created a gravitational pull or “fringe effect” that realigned inter-organizational networks and altered the contours of mainstream discourse itself.
AbbottAndrew. 1997. “On the Concept of Turning Point.” Comparative Social Research16:85–106.
2.
AdamsJuliaClemensElisabeth S.OrloffAnn Shola. 2005. Remaking Modernity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
3.
AldrichHoward. 1979. Organizations and Environments. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
4.
AlexanderJeffrey C.2006. The Civil Sphere. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
5.
AltheideDavid L.2002. Creating Fear: News and the Construction of Crisis. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
6.
AltheideDavid L.2006. Terrorism and the Politics of Fear. Oxford, UK: AltaMira Press.
7.
AmentaEdwinCarenNealChiarelloElizabethSuYang. 2010. “The Political Consequences of Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology36:287–307.
8.
AmentaEdwinCarenNealOlaskySheera JoyStobaughJames E.2009. “All the Movements Fit to Print: Who, What, When, Where, and Why SMO Families Appeared in the New York Times in the Twentieth Century.” American Sociological Review74:636–56.
9.
AminzadeRonMcAdamDoug. 2001. “Emotions and Contentious Politics.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly7:107–109.
10.
AndersonBenedict. 1993. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso.
11.
AndrewsKennethBiggsMichael. 2006. “The Dynamics of Protest Diffusion: Movement Organizations, Social Networks, and News Media in the 1960 Sit-Ins.” American Sociological Review71:752–77.
12.
AndrewsKennethCarenNeal. 2010. “Making the News: Movement Organizations, Media Attention, and the Public Agenda.” American Sociological Review75:841–66.
13.
AndrewsKennethEdwardsBob. 2004. “Advocacy Organizations in the U.S. Political Process.” Annual Review of Sociology30:479–506.
14.
AndrewsKennethHunterAnneEdwardsBob. 2012. “Methodological Strategies for Examining Populations of Social Movement Organizations.” Working paper, Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.
15.
ArmstrongElizabeth A.2002. Forging Gay Identities: Organizing Sexuality in San Francisco, 1950–1994. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
16.
ArmstrongElizabeth A.BernsteinMary. 2008. “Culture, Power, and Institutions: A Multi-Institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements.” Sociological Theory26:74–99.
17.
BailChristopher A.2008. “The Configuration of Symbolic Boundaries against Immigrants in Europe.” American Sociological Review73:37–59.
18.
BakalianAnnyBozorgmehrMehdi. 2009. Backlash 9/11: Middle Eastern and Muslim Americans Respond, 1st ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.
19.
BaldassarriDeliaBearmanPeter. 2007. “Dynamics of Political Polarization.” American Sociological Review72:784–811.
20.
BaoShenghuaXuShengliangZhangLiYanRongSuZhongHanDingyiYuYong. 2011. “Mining Social Emotions from Affective Text.” IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering24:1658–70.
21.
BartleyTim. 2007. “How Foundations Shape Social Movements: The Construction of an Organizational Field and the Rise of Forest Certification.” Social Problems54:229–55.
22.
BaumgartnerFrankJonesBryan. 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics, 1st ed. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
23.
BearmanPeter. 1993. Relations into Rhetorics: Local Elite Social Structure in Norfolk, England, 1540–1640. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
24.
BenfordRobert D.1993. “Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement.” Social Forces71:677–701.
25.
BenfordRobert D.1997. “An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective.” Sociological Inquiry67:409–430.
26.
BenfordRobert D.SnowDavid. 2003. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology26:611–39.
27.
BennettLance. 2004. News: The Politics of Illusion. Washington, DC: Pearson Publishers.
28.
BerezinMabel. 2002. “Secure States: Towards a Political Sociology of Emotion.” Pp. 33–50 in Emotions and Sociology, edited by BarbaletJ.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
29.
BestRachel Kahn. 2012. “Disease Politics and Medical Research Funding: Three Ways Advocacy Shapes Policy.” American Sociological Review77:780–803.
BourdieuPierre. 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
32.
BourdieuPierre. 1985. “The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups.” Theory and Society14:723–44.
33.
BrulleRobertTurnerLieselCarmichaelJasonJenkinsJ. Craig. 2007. “Measuring Social Movement Organization Populations: A Comprehensive Census of U.S Environmental Movement Organizations.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly12:255–70.
34.
BursteinPaulLintonApril. 2002. “The Impact of Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Social Movement Organizations on Public Policy: Some Recent Evidence and Theoretical Concerns.” Social Forces81:380–408.
35.
CeruloKaren A.1998. Deciphering Violence: The Cognitive Structure of Right and Wrong, 1st ed. New York: Routledge.
36.
ClaymanSteven E.ReisnerAnn. 1998. “Gatekeeping in Action: Editorial Conferences and Assessments of Newsworthiness.” American Sociological Review63:178–99.
37.
CollinsRandall. 2001. “Social Movements and the Focus of Emotional Attention.” Pp. 27–44 in Passionate Politics, edited by GoodwinJ.JasperJ.PollettaF.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
38.
CollinsRandall. 2012. “C-Escalation and D-Escalation: A Theory of the Time-Dynamics of Conflict.” American Sociological Review77:1–20.
39.
CorbettJulia B.1998. “Media, Bureaucracy, and the Success of Social Protest: Newspaper Coverage of Environmental Movement Groups.” Mass Communication and Society1:41–61.
40.
DebParthaManningWillardNortonEdward. 2012. “Count Models.” Working paper, Department of Economics, City University of New York, New York, NY.
41.
DianiMarioMcAdamDoug. 2003. Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action. New York: Oxford University Press.
42.
DiMaggioPaul. 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology23:263–88.
43.
DiMaggioPaulPowellWalter. 1983. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review48:147–60.
44.
DouglasMary. 1966. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. New York: Praeger.
45.
EarlJennifer. 2004. “The Cultural Consequences of Social Movements.” Pp. 508–530 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by SnowD.SouleS.KriesiH.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
46.
EarlJenniferMartinAndrewMcCarthyJohn D.SouleSarah A.2004. “The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action.” Annual Review of Sociology30:65–80.
47.
EdelmanMurray. 1964. The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
48.
EmeryF. E.TristE. L.1965. “The Causal Texture of Organization Environments.” Human Relations18:21–32.
49.
EvansJohn H.1997. “Multi-Organizational Fields and Social Movement Organization Frame Content: The Religious Pro-Choice Movement.” Sociological Inquiry67:451–69.
50.
FerreeMyra Marx. 2003. “Resonance and Radicalism: Feminist Framing in the Abortion Debates of the United States and Germany.” American Journal of Sociology109:304–344.
51.
FerreeMyra MarxGamsonWilliamGerhardsJürgenRuchtDieter. 2002. Shaping Abortion Discourse: Democracy and the Public Sphere in Germany and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
52.
FligsteinNeil. 2001. “Social Skill and the Theory of Fields.” Sociological Theory19:105–125.
53.
FligsteinNeilMcAdamDoug. 2012. A Theory of Fields. New York: Oxford University Press.
54.
FreemanJohnHannanMichael T.1983. “Niche Width and the Dynamics of Organizational Populations.” American Journal of Sociology88:1116–45.
55.
GaltungJohanRugeMari Holmboe. 1965. “The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers.” Journal of Peace Research2:64–90.
56.
GamsonWilliam. 1990. The Strategy of Social Protest. Boston: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
57.
GamsonWilliamModiglianiAndre. 1989. “Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach.” American Journal of Sociology95:1–37.
58.
GamsonWilliamWolfsfeldGadi. 1993. “Movements and Media as Interacting Systems.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science528:114–25.
59.
GansHerbert. 1979. Deciding What’s News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek and Time. New York: Vintage.
60.
GelmanAndrewHillJennifer. 2007. Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
61.
GhazianiAminBaldassarriDelia. 2011. “Cultural Anchors and the Organization of Differences.” American Sociological Review76:179–206.
62.
GitlinTodd. 1980. The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley: University of California Press.
63.
GoodwinJeffJasperJamesPollettaFrancesca. 2001. Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
64.
GouldDeborah. 2009. Moving Politics: Emotion and ACT UP’s Fight against AIDS. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
65.
GrimmerJustin. 2010. “A Bayesian Hierarchical Topic Model for Political Texts: Measuring Expressed Agendas in Senate Press Releases.” Political Analysis18:1–35.
66.
GrosecloseTimMilyoJeffrey. 2005. “A Measure of Media Bias.” Quarterly Journal of Economics120:1191–1237.
67.
HainesHerbert H.1984. “Black Radicalization and the Funding of Civil Rights: 1957–1970.” Social Problems32:31–43.
68.
HedströmPeterBearmanPeter. 2011. The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press.
69.
HilgartnerStephenBoskCharles L.1988. “The Rise and Fall of Social Problems: A Public Arenas Model.” American Journal of Sociology94:53–78.
70.
IsaacLarry. 2008. “Movement of Movements: Culture Moves in the Long Civil Rights Struggle.” Social Forces87:33–63.
71.
IsaacLarryGriffinLarry J.1989. “Ahistoricism in Time-Series Analyses of Historical Process: Critique, Redirection, and Illustrations from U.S. Labor History.” American Sociological Review54:873–90.
72.
IyengarShantoKinderDonald R.1988. News that Matters: Television and American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
73.
JacobsRonaldTownsleyEleanor. 2011. The Space of Opinion: Media Intellectuals and the Public Sphere. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
74.
JasperJames. 2006. Getting Your Way: Strategic Dilemmas in the Real World. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
75.
KatzensteinMary Fainsod. 1999. Faithful and Fearless: Moving Feminist Protest Inside the Church and Military. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
76.
KennedyMark. 2008. “Getting Counted: Markets, Media, and Reality.” American Sociological Review73:270–95.
77.
KingBrayden G.2011. “The Tactical Disruptiveness of Social Movements: Sources of Market and Mediated Disruption in Corporate Boycotts.” Social Problems58:491–517.
78.
KlandermansBertGosinglaS.1996. “Media Discourse, Movement Publicity, and the Generation of Collective Action Frames: Theoretical and Empirical Exercises in Meaning Construction.” Pp. 312–37 in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Framing, edited by McAdamD.McCarthyJ.ZaldM.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
79.
KoopmansRuud. 2004. “Movements and Media: Selection Processes and Evolutionary Dynamics in the Public Sphere.” Theory and Society33:367–91.
80.
KoopmansRuudOlzakSusan. 2004. “Discursive Opportunities and the Evolution of Right-Wing Violence in Germany.” American Journal of Sociology110:198–230.
81.
KoopmansRuudVliegenthartRens. 2011. “Media Attention as the Outcome of a Diffusion Process: A Theoretical Framework and Cross-National Evidence on Earthquake Coverage.” European Sociological Review27:636–53.
82.
KurzmanCharles. 2004. The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
83.
KurzmanCharles. 2011. The Missing Martyrs: Why There Are So Few Muslim Terrorists. New York: Oxford University Press.
84.
LamontMichèle. 1992. Money, Morals, and Manners: The Culture of the French and American Upper- Middle Class. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
85.
LamontMichèle. 2000. The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
86.
LeeTaeku. 2002. Mobilizing Public Opinion: Black Insurgency and Racial Attitudes in the Civil Rights Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
87.
Levi-MartinJohn. 2003. “What Is Field Theory?”American Journal of Sociology109:1–49.
88.
LevitskySandra. 2007. “Niche Activism: Constructing a Unified Movement Identity in a Heterogeneous Organizational Field.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly12:271–86.
89.
LiebersonStanley. 2000. A Matter of Taste: How Names, Fashions, and Culture Change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
90.
LippmannWalter. 1922. Public Opinion. Boston, MA: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
91.
McAdamDoug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970, 1st ed. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
92.
McAdamDoug. 1996. “Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions.” In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, edited by McAdamD.McCarthyJ.ZaldM.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
93.
McCammonHolly J.2012. “Explaining Frame Variation: More Moderate and Radical Demands for Women’s Citizenship in the U.S. Women’s Jury Movements.” Social Problems59:43–69.
94.
McCammonHolly J.MuseCourtney SandersNewmanHarmony D.TerrellTeresa M.2007. “Movement Framing and Discursive Opportunity Structures: The Political Successes of the U.S. Women’s Jury Movements.” American Sociological Review72:725–49.
95.
McCarthyJohn D.McPhailClarkSmithJackie. 1996. “Images of Protest: Dimensions of Selection Bias in Media Coverage of Washington Demonstrations, 1982 and 1991.” American Sociological Review61:478–99.
96.
McVeighRoryNeblettCarlShafiqSarah. 2006. “Explaining Social Movement Outcomes: Multiorganizational Fields and Hate Crime Reporting.” Mobilization11:23–49.
97.
MeyerDavidMinkoffDebra. 2004. “Conceptualizing Political Opportunity.” Social Forces82:1457–92.
98.
MinkoffDebraAisenbreySilkeAgnoneJon. 2008. “Organizational Diversity in the U.S. Advocacy Sector.” Social Problems55:525–48.
99.
MischeAnn. 2008. Partisan Publics: Communication and Contention across Brazilian Youth Activist Networks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
100.
MizruchiMark S.1996. “What Do Interlocks Do? An Analysis, Critique, and Assessment of Research on Interlocking Directorates.” Annual Review of Sociology22:271–98.
101.
MohrJohn W.1998. “Measuring Meaning Structures.” Annual Review of Sociology24:345–70.
102.
MohrJohn W.Guerra-PearsonFrancesca. 2010. “The Duality of Niche and Form: The Differentiation of Institutional Space in New York City, 1888–1917.” Pp. 321–68 in Categories in Markets: Origins and Evolution, edited by HsuG.KocakO.BradfordG. Negro., UK: Emerald Press.
103.
MyersDaniel J.CanigliaBeth Schaefer. 2004. “All the Rioting That’s Fit to Print: Selection Effects in National Newspaper Coverage of Civil Disorders, 1968–1969.” American Sociological Review69:519–43.
104.
OliverPamelaManeyGregory M.2000. “Political Processes and Local Newspaper Coverage of Protest Events: From Selection Bias to Triadic Interactions.” American Journal of Sociology106:463–505.
105.
OliverPamelaMyersDaniel J.1999. “How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location, and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events.” American Journal of Sociology105:38–87.
106.
OliverPamelaMyersDaniel J.2002. “The Coevolution of Social Movements.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly8:1–24.
107.
OrtizDavid G.MyersDaniel J.WallsEugene N.DiazMaria-Elena. 2005. “Where Do We Stand with Newspaper Data?”Mobilization: An International Quarterly10:397–419.
108.
PadgettJohn F.PowellWalter W.2012. The Emergence of Organizations and Markets. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
109.
ParkerChristopherBarretoMatt. 2012. Will the Real Americans Please Stand Up? The Tea Party and Contemporary Right-Wing Extremism in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
110.
PerrinAndrew J.2005. “National Threat and Political Culture: Authoritarianism, Antiauthoritarianism, and the September 11 Attacks.” Political Psychology26:167–94.
111.
PerrinAndrew J.TepperSteven J.CarenNealMorrisSarah. 2011. “Cultures of the Tea Party.” Contexts10:74–75.
112.
PerrinAndrew J.VaiseyStephen B.2008. “Parallel Public Spheres: Distance and Discourse in Letters to the Editor.” American Journal of Sociology114:781–810.
113.
PollettaFrancesca. 1997. “Culture and Its Discontents: Recent Theorizing on the Cultural Dimensions of Protest.” Sociological Inquiry67:431–50.
114.
PollettaFrancesca. 2008. “Culture and Movements.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science619:78–96.
115.
PowellWalter W.WhiteDouglas R.KoputKenneth W.Owen-SmithJason. 2005. “Network Dynamics and Field Evolution: The Growth of Interorganizational Collaboration in the Life Sciences.” American Journal of Sociology110:1132–1205.
116.
PressAndreaColeElizabeth R.2001. Speaking of Abortion: Television and Authority in the Lives of Women. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
117.
Rabe-HeskethSophiaSkrondalAnders. 2008. Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
118.
ReadJen’nan Ghazal. 2007. “Introduction: The Politics of Veiling in Comparative Perspective.” Sociology of Religion68:231–36.
119.
RohlingerDeana A.2006. “Friends and Foes: Media, Politics, and Tactics in the Abortion War.” Social Problems53:537–61.
120.
RohlingerDeana A.2007. “American Media and Deliberative Democratic Processes.” Sociological Theory25:122–48.
121.
RojasFabio. 2006. “Social Movement Tactics, Organizational Change and the Spread of African-American Studies.” Social Forces84:2147–66.
122.
SchacterDaniel L.2001. The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
123.
SchanzerDavidKurzmanCharlesMoosaEbrahim. 2010. “The Anti-Terror Lessons of Muslim-Americans.” Working Paper, Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University, Durham, NC.
124.
SchudsonMichael. 1989. “How Culture Works: Perspectives From Media Studies on the Efficacy of Symbols.” Theory and Society18:153–80.
125.
SeguinCharles. 2012. “Avalanches of Attention: Positive Feedback in Media Coverage of Social Movement Organizations.” Working paper, Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.
126.
SewellWilliam. 1996. “Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille.” Theory and Society25:841–81.
127.
SkocpolThedaWilliamsonVanessa. 2012. The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism. New York: Oxford University Press.
128.
SmithJackieMcCarthyJohn D.McPhailClarkAugustynBoguslaw. 2001. “From Protest to Agenda Building: Description Bias in Media Coverage of Protest Events in Washington, D.C.” Social Forces79:1397–1423.
129.
SmithPhilip. 2005. Why War? The Cultural Logic of Iraq, the Gulf War and Suez. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
130.
SnowDavid. 2004. “Framing Processes, Ideology, and Discursive Fields.” Pp. 380–93 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by SnowD.SouleS.KriesiH.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
131.
SnyderDavidKelleyWilliam R.1977. “Conflict Intensity, Media Sensitivity and the Validity of Newspaper Data.” American Sociological Review42:105–123.
132.
SobierajSarah. 2011. Soundbitten: The Perils of Media-Centered Political Activism. New York: NYU Press.
133.
SouleSarah A.OlzakSusan. 2004. “When Do Movements Matter? The Politics of Contingency and the Equal Rights Amendment.” American Sociological Review69:473–97.
134.
SpillmanLyn. 1995. “Culture, Social Structures and Discursive Fields.” Current Perspectives in Social Theory15:129–54.
135.
StaggenborgSuzanne. 1994. The Pro-Choice Movement: Organization and Activism in the Abortion Conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.
136.
SteenslandBrian. 2008. “Why do Policy Frames Change? Actor–Idea Coevolution in Debates Over Welfare Reform.” Social Forces86:1027–1054.
137.
SteinbergMarc W.1999. “The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners.” American Journal of Sociology105:736–80.
138.
Summers-EfflerErika. 2002. “The Micro Potential for Social Change: Emotion, Consciousness, and Social Movement Formation.” Sociological Theory20:41–60.
139.
Summers-EfflerErika. 2010. Laughing Saints and Righteous Heroes: Emotional Rhythms in Social Movement Groups. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
140.
SwidlerAnn. 1986. “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociological Review51:273–86.
141.
TaylorVertaVan DykeNella. 2004. “Get Up, Stand Up: Tactical Repertoires of Social Movements.” Pp. 262–74 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by SnowD.SouleS.KriesiH.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
142.
ThelenKathleen. 2004. How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Van DykeNellaMcCammonHolly J.2010. Strategic Alliances: Coalition Building and Social Movements. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
145.
ViternaJocelyn. 2012. When Women Wage War: Explaining the Causes and Consequences of Guerrilla Activism in El Salvador. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
146.
VliegenthartRensOegemaDirkKlandermansBert. 2005. “Media Coverage and Organizational Support in the Dutch Environmental Movement.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly10:365–81.
147.
Wagner-PacificiRobin. 2010. “Theorizing the Restlessness of Events.” American Journal of Sociology115:1351–86.
148.
WalkerEdwardMcCarthyJohn D.2010. “Legitimacy, Strategy, and Resources in the Survival of Community-Based Organizations.” Social Problems57:315–40.
149.
WalkerEdwardMcCarthyJohn D.BaumgartnerFrank. 2010. “Replacing Members with Managers? Mutualism among Membership and Non-membership Advocacy Organizations in the U.S.” American Journal of Sociology116:1284–1337.
150.
WhiteHarrison C.1981. “Where Do Markets Come From?”American Journal of Sociology87:517–47.
151.
WilliamsRhys H.2004. “The Cultural Contexts of Collective Action: Constraints, Opportunities, and the Symbolic Life of Social Movements.” Pp. 91–115 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by SnowD.SouleS.KriesiH.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.
152.
WimmerAndreas. 2008. “The Making and Unmaking of Ethnic Boundaries: A Multilevel Process Theory.” American Journal of Sociology113:970–1022.
153.
WuthnowRobert. 1987. Meaning and Moral Order. Berkeley: University of California Press.
154.
WuthnowRobert. 1993. Communities of Discourse: Ideology and Social Structure in the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and European Socialism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
