Two quite different cultures are to be found within psychoanalysis, one more clinical in orientation, more focused on meaning and interpretation, and relying primarily on the traditional case study method, the other more research-oriented, focused on cause-and-effect relationships, and relying primarily on methods borrowed from the natural and social sciences. The history of this divide is reviewed and arguments, pro and con, about the potential contributions of specific types of empirical investigation are discussed. Increasingly, it seems, criticisms concerning the scientific status of psychoanalysis are being responded to by empirical research. This has contributed to a growing recognition within the scientific community of the credibility of aspects of psychoanalytic theories and of the effectiveness of psychodynamic treatment. However, some segments of the psychoanalytic community are concerned that this increase in the quantity and quality of empirical research on psychoanalytic concepts risks creating an empirical one-sidedness, while other segments are concerned that not engaging in systematic empirical research can lead to intellectual isolation, fragmentation, stagnation, and orthodoxy. To counter this polarizing tendency, a recommendation is made for methodological pluralism. Adopting this stance could contribute to an enriched understanding of the clinical process and to the development of new research methodologies to investigate complex psychodynamic hypotheses, thus bridging the gap between the two psychoanalytic cultures, as well as the gap between research and clinical practice.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ablon, J.S., & Jones, E.E. (2005). On analytic process. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association53:541—568.
2.
Alvarez, A. (2000). Discussion (II). In Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy, ed. J. Sandler, A.-M. Sandler, & R. Davies.London: Karnac Books, pp. 100—107.
3.
Bailey, J.S., & Burch, M.S., EDS. (2002). Research Methods in Applied Behavioral Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
4.
Bateman, A. (2004). Psychoanalysis and psychiatry: Is there a future?Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica109:161—163.
5.
——— & Fonagy, P. (1999). Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: A randomized controlled clinical trial. American Journal of Psychiatry156:1563—1569.
6.
——— ——— (2001). Treatment of borderline personality disorder with psychoanalytically oriented partial hospitalization: An 18-month follow-up . American Journal of Psychiatry158:36—42.
7.
——— ——— (2004). Psychotherapy for Borderline Personality Disorder: Mentalization-Based Treatment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8.
Beebe, B. (in press). Mother-infant research informs mother-infant treatment . Psychoanalytic Study of the Child.
9.
——— & Lachmann, F. (2002). Infant Research and Adult Treatment: Co-constructing Interactions. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
10.
——— Rustin, J., Sorter, D., & Knoblauch, S. (2003). An expanded view of intersubjectivity in infancy and its application to psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Dialogues13:805—841.
11.
Betan, E., Heim, A.K., Conklin, C.Z., & Westen, D. (2005). Counter-transference phenomena and personality pathology in clinical practice: An empirical investigation. American Journal of Psychiatry162:890— 898.
12.
Beutel, M.E., Stern, E., & Silbersweig, D.A. (2003). The emerging dialogue between psychoanalysis and neuroscience: Neuroimaging perspectives. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association51:773—801.
13.
Blatt, S.J. (1992). The differential effect of psychotherapy and psychoanalysis with anaclitic and introjective patients: The Menninger Psychotherapy Research Project revisited. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association40:691—724.
——— ——— & Levy, K.N. (1997). Mental representation in personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. Review of General Psychology1:351—374.
16.
——— & Shahar, G. (2004). Psychoanalysis: With whom, for what, and how? Comparisons with psychotherapy. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association52:393—447.
17.
——— Zuroff, D.C., Bondi, C.M., Sanislow, C.A., & Pilkonis, P.A. (1998). When and how perfectionism impedes the brief treatment of depression: Further analyses of the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology66:423—428.
18.
Blum, H.P. (1999). Freud at the crossing of the millennia. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association47:1027—1035.
19.
Bornstein, R.F. (1988). Psychoanalysis in the undergraduate curriculum: The treatment of psychoanalytic theory in abnormal psychology texts. Psychoanalytic Psychology5:83—93.
20.
——— (2001). The impending death of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Psychology18:3—20.
21.
——— (2005). Reconnecting psychoanalysis to mainstream psychology. Challenges and opportunities. Psychoanalytic Psychology22:323—340.
22.
——— & Masling, J.M., EDS. (1998a). Empirical Studies of Psychoanalytic Theories: Vol. 7. Psychoanalytic Perspectives on the Psychoanalytic Unconscious. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
23.
——— ——— EDS. (1998b). Empirical Studies of Psychoanalytic Theories: Vol. 8. Empirical Studies of the Therapeutic Hour. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
24.
Boston Change Process Study Group (2005). The “something more” than interpretation revisited: Sloppiness and co-creativity in the psychoanalytic encounter. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association53:693—729.
25.
Britton, R., & Steiner, J. (1994). Interpretation: Selected fact or overvalued idea?International Journal of Psychoanalysis75:1069—1078.
26.
Bucci, W. (1997). Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Science: A Multiple Code Theory. New York: Guilford Press.
27.
Campbell, D.T., & Stanley, J.C. (1966). Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally .
28.
Cioffi, F. (1970). Freud and the idea of a pseudoscience. In Explanation in the Behavioural Sciences, ed. R.R. Borger & F. Cioffi.London: Cambridge University Press, pp. 508—515.
29.
Clarkin, J.F., & Levy, K.N. (2003). A psychodynamic treatment for severe personality disorders: Issues in treatment development. Psychoanalytic Inquiry23:248—267.
30.
Corveleyn, J., & Luyten, P. (2005). Psychodynamic psychologies and religion: Past, present, and future. In Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, ed. R.F. Paloutzian & C.L. ParkNew York : Guilford Press, pp. 80—100.
31.
Crawford, M.J., Weaver, T., Rutter, D., Sensky, T., & Tyrer, P. (2002). Evaluating new treatments in psychiatry: The potential value of combining qualitative and quantitative research methods. International Review of Psychiatry14:6—11.
32.
Crews, F. (1995). The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute. New York: New York Review of Books.
33.
——— ED. (1998). Unauthorized Freud. Doubters Confront a Legend . New York: Viking Press.
Diamond, D. (2004). Attachment disorganization: The reunion of attachment theory and psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Psychology21:276—299.
36.
Edelson, M. (1984). Hypotheses and Evidence in Psychoanalysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
37.
——— (1988). Psychoanalysis: A Theory in Crisis. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
38.
Elliott, R., Fischer, C.T., & Rennie, D.L. (1999). Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields. British Journal of Clinical Psychology38:215—229.
39.
Emde, R.N. (1988a). Development terminable and interminable: I. Innate and motivational factors from infancy. International Journal of Psychoanalysis69:23—42.
40.
——— (1988b). Development terminable and interminable: II. Recent psychoanalytic theory and therapeutic considerations. International Journal of Psychoanalysis69:283—296.
41.
——— & Fonagy, P. (1997). Guest editorial: An emerging culture for psychoanalytic research?International Journal of Psychoanalysis78:643—651.
42.
Erdelyi, M.H. (1985). Psychoanalysis: Freud's Cognitive Psychology. New York: Freeman.
43.
——— (1994). Commentary: Integrating a dissociation-prone psychology . Journal of Personality62:669—680.
44.
Eysenck, H.J. (1972). The experimental study of Freudian concepts. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society25:261—274.
45.
——— (1985). Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire. London: Virago Press.
46.
Farrell, J. (1996). Freud's Paranoid Quest: Psychoanalysis and Modern Suspicion. New York: NYU Press.
47.
Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R.P. (1996). Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York: Wiley.
48.
Fonagy, P. (1996). Discussion of Peter Wolff's “Infant observation and psychoanalysis.” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association44:404—422.
49.
——— (2000). Grasping the nettle: Or why psychoanalytic research is such an irritant. Paper presented at the Annual Research Lecture of the British Psychoanalytical Society, March 1.
50.
——— (2003). Genetics, developmental psychopathology, and psychoanalytic theory: The case for ending our (not so) splendid isolation. Psychoanalytic Inquiry23:218—247.
51.
——— Gerber, A., Kächele, H., Krause, R., Jones, E., Perron, R., & Allison, E. (2002). An Open Door Review of Outcome Studies in Psychoanalysis . 2nd rev. ed. London: International Psychoanalytical Association.
52.
——— Gergely, G., Jurist, E.L., & Target, M. (2004). Affect Regulation, Mentalization, and the Development of the Self. London: Karnac Books .
53.
——— & Moran, G. (1993). Selecting single case research designs for clinicians . In Psychodynamic Treatment Research: A Handbook for Clinical Practice, ed. N.E. Miller, L. Luborsky, J.P. Barber , & J.P. Docherty.New York: Basic Books, pp. 62—95.
54.
——— & Tallandini-Shallice, M. (1993). Problems of psychoanalytic research in practice. Bulletin of the Anna Freud Centre16:5—22.
55.
——— & Target, M. (2000). The place of psychodynamic theory in developmental psychopathology. Development & Psychopathology12:407—425.
56.
Forrester, J. (1996). If p, then what? Thinking in cases. History of theHuman Sciences9:1—25.
57.
——— (1997). Dispatches from the Freud Wars: Psychoanalysis and Its Passions. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
58.
Fossey, E., Harvey, C., Mcdermott, F., & Davidson, L. (2002). Understanding and evaluating qualitative research . Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry36:717—732.
59.
Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. Standard Edition4/5.
60.
——— (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition7:123—243.
61.
——— (1915). Repression. Standard Edition14:146—158.
62.
——— (1925). An autobiographical study. Standard Edition20:7—70.
63.
——— (1985). The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess 1887—1904. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
64.
Fridhandler, B., Eels, T.D., & Horowitz, M.J. (1999). Psychoanalytic explanation of pathological grief: Scientific observation of a single case. Psychoanalytic Psychology16:34—57.
65.
Gabbard, G.O., Gunderson, J.G., & Fonagy, P. (2002). The place of psychoanalytic treatments within psychiatry. Archives ofGeneral Psychiatry59:505—510.
66.
Galatzer-Levy, R.M. (1991). Presentation of clinical experience. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association39:727—740.
67.
——— & Hauser, S.T. (1997). Psychoanalytic research: An investment in the future. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association45:9—12.
68.
Green, A. (1996). What kind of research for psychoanalysis?International Psychoanalysis: Newsletter of the International Psychoanalytical Association5:10—14.
69.
——— (2000). Science and science fiction in infant research . In Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy , ed. J. Sandler, A.-M. Sandler, & R. Davies.London: Karnac Books, pp. 41—72.
70.
Grünbaum, A. (1984). The Foundations of Psychoanalysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.
71.
——— (2001). A century of psychoanalysis: Critical retrospect and prospect. International Forum of Psychoanalysis10:105—112.
72.
Gunderson, J.G., & Gabbard, G.O. (1998). Making the case for psychoanalytic therapies in the current psychiatric environment. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association47:679—704.
73.
Hauser, S.T. (2002). The future of psychoanalytic research: Turning points and opportunities. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association50:395—405.
74.
——— (2004). Creative alliances: Enhancing interfaces between psychoanalysis and research. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association52:385—391.
75.
——— Golden, E., & Allen, J.P. (in press). Narrative in the study of resilience. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child.
76.
Holt, R.R. (1984). The current status of psychoanalytic theory. Paper presented to the American Psychological Association, Toronto.
77.
——— (1992). The contemporary crises of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis & Contemporary Thought15:375—402.
78.
——— (1999). The literary critics take on Freud: An assessment of their critics. In The Death of Psychoanalysis. Murder? Suicide? Or Rumor Greatly Exaggerated?, ed. R.M. PrinceNorthvale, NJ: Aronson , pp. 265—304.
79.
Horowitz, M.J., Stinson, C., Fridhandler, B., Milbrath, C., Redington, D., & Ewert, M. (1993). Pathological grief: An intensive case study. Psychiatry56:356—374.
80.
Huprich, S.K., & Greenberg, R.P. (2003). Advances in the assessment of object relations in the 1990s. Clinical Psychology Review23:665—698.
81.
Jones, E.E. (2000). Therapeutic Action: A Guide to Psychoanalytic Therapy. Northvale, NJ: Aronson .
82.
——— & Windholz, M. (1990). The psychoanalytic case study: Toward a method for systematic inquiry. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association38:985—1015.
83.
Josephs, L., Andrews, E., Bernard, A., Fatzer, K., & Streich, S. (2004). Assessing change in analysis terminable. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association52:1185—1214.
84.
Kächele, H., Eberhardt, J., & Leuzinger-Bohleber, M. (1999). Expressed relationships, dream atmosphere and problem solving in Amalia's dreams: Dream series as process tools to investigate cognitive changes—a single case study. In Psychoanalytic Process Research Strategies: II, ed. H. Kächele, E. Mergenthaler , & R. Krause.New York: Springer Verlag.
85.
Kandel, E.R. (1999). Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: A new intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited. American Journal of Psychiatry156:505—524.
86.
Kazdin, A.E. (2003). Research Designs in Clinical Psychology. 4th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
87.
Kiell, N. (1988). Freud without Hindsight: Reviews of His Works (1893— 1939). Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
88.
Klumpner, G.H., & Frank, A. (1991). On methods of reporting clinical material. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association39:537—551.
89.
Köhler, T. (1996). Anti-Freud-Literatur von ihren Anfängen bis heute: Zur wissenschaftlichen Fundierung von Psychoanalyse-Kritik [Anti-Freud Literature from the Beginnings to Present Times: On the Scientific Foundations of Criticism on Psychoanalysis]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
90.
Lambert, M.J., & Ogles, B.M. (2004). The efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy . In Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change, ed. M.J. Lambert.5th ed. New York: Wiley , pp. 139—193.
91.
Leichsenring, F. (2001). Comparative effects of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in depression: A meta-analytic approach. Clinical Psychology Review21:401—419.
92.
——— Rabung, S., & Leibing, E. (2004). The efficacy of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy in specific psychiatric disorders. A meta-analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry61:1208—1216.
93.
Lenzenweger, M.F., Clarkin, J.F., Kernberg, O.F., & Foelsch, P.A. (2001). The Inventory of Personality Organization: Psychometric properties, factorial composition, and criterion relations with affect, aggressive dyscontrol, psychosis proneness, and self-domains in a nonclinical sample . Psychological Assessment13:577—591.
94.
Leuzinger-Bohleber, M., & Bürgin, D. (2003). Pluralism and unity in psychoanalytic research: Some introductory remarks. In Pluralism and Unity? Methods of Research in Psychoanalysis, ed. M. Leuzinger-Bohleber , A.U. Dreher, & J. Canestri.London: International Psychoanalytical Association, pp. 1—25.
95.
Levy, K.N., Clarkin, J.F., & Kernberg, O.F. (in press). Change in attachment and reflective function in the treatment of borderline personality disorder with transference focused psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology.
96.
Levy, S.T. (2004). From the editor. Splendid isolation. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association52:971—973.
97.
Lietaer, H. (2001), Adolf Grünbaum and the theory of seduction. In Seduction, Suggestion, Psychoanalysis, ed. P. Van Haute & J. Corveleyn. Leuven: Leuven University Press, pp. 79—107.
98.
Lingiardi V., Shedler, J., & Gazillo, F. (2006). Assessing personality change in psychotherapy with the SWAP-200: A case study. Journal of Personality Assessment . 86:23—32.
99.
Loftus, E., & Ketcham, K. (1994). The Myth of Repressed Memory. New York: St. Martin's Press.
100.
Lothane, Z. (1996). Psychoanalytic method and the mischief of Freud bashers. Psychiatric Times, pp. 48—49.
101.
——— (1999). The perennial Freud: Method versus myth and the mischief of Freud bashers. International Forum of Psychoanalysis8:151—171.
102.
——— (2001). A response to Grünbaum's “A century of psychoanalysis: Critical retrospect and prospect” (and other texts): Requiem or reveille?International Forum of Psychoanalysis10:113—132.
103.
Luborsky, L. (1986). Evidence to lessen Professor Grünbaum's concern about Freud's clinical inference method. TheBehavioral & Brain Sciences9:247—249.
104.
——— Diguer, L., Seligman, D., Rosenthal, R., Krause, E., Johnson, S., Halperin, G., Bishop, M., Berman, J., & Schweizer, E. (1999). The researcher's own therapy allegiances: A “wild card” in comparisons of treatment efficacy. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice6:95—106.
105.
Luyten, P. (in press). Psychopathology: A simple twist of fate or a meaningful distortion of normal development? Toward an etiologically based alternative for the DSM approach. Psychoanalytic Inquiry.
106.
——— Blatt, S.J., & Corveleyn, J. (2005). The convergence among psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral theories of depression: Theoretical overview. In The Theory and Treatment of Depression: Toward a Dynamic Interactionism Model, ed. J. Corveleyn, P. Luyten, & S.J. BlattLeuven / Mahwah, NJ: Leuven University Press / Lawrence Erlbaum Associates , pp. 67— 94.
107.
Macmillan, M. (1991). Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc. Amsterdam: North Holland.
108.
Main, M. (2000). The organized categories of infant, child, and adult attachment: Flexible vs. inflexible attention under attachment-related stress. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association48:1055—1096.
109.
Masling, J.M., & Bornstein, R.F. , Eds. (1996 ). Empirical Studies of Psychoanalytic Theories: Vol. 6. Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Developmental Psychology. Washington, DC : American Psychological Association.
110.
Masson, J.M. (1984). The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory. London: Faber & Faber.
111.
Mayes, L.C. (2003). Partnering with the neurosciences. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association51:745—754.
112.
——— (2005). Interface between psychoanalytic developmental theory and other disciplines. In The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychoanalysis, ed. E.S. Person , A.M. Cooper, & G.O. Gabbard.Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, pp. 147—158.
113.
Meehl, P.E. (1994). Subjectivity in psychoanalytic inference: The nagging persistence of Wilhelm Fliess's Achensee question. Psychoanalysis & Contemporary Thought17:3—82.
114.
Messer, S.B., & Mccann, L. (2005). Research perspectives on the case study: Single-case study method. In Relatedness, Self-definition and Mental Representation: Essays in Honor of Sidney J. Blatt, ed. J.S. Auerbach, K.N. Levy, & C.E. Schaffer.London/ New York: Routledge, pp. 222—237.
115.
Michels, R. (2000). The case history. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association48:355—375.
116.
Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. An Expanded Sourcebook. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications.
117.
Miller, N.E., Luborsky, L. , Barber, J.P., & Docherty, J.P., EDS. (1993). Psychodynamic TreatmentResearch: A Handbook for Clinical Practice. New York: Basic Books.
118.
Milton, J. (2001). Psychoanalysis and cognitive behaviour therapy: Rival paradigms or common ground?International Journal of Psychoanalysis82:431—447.
119.
Mishler, E.G. (1979). Meaning in context: Is there any other kind?Harvard Educational Review49:1—19.
120.
Ofshe, R., & Watters, E. (1995). Making Monsters: False Memories, Psychotherapy, and Sexual Hysteria. London: André Deutsch.
121.
Olds, D., & Cooper, A.M. (1997). Dialogue with other sciences: Opportunities for mutual gain. International Journal of Psychoanalysis78:219—225.
122.
Pick, I.B. (2000). Discussion (III). In Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy, ed. J. Sandler, A.-M. Sandler, & R. Davies.London: Karnac Books, pp.108—118.
123.
Pine, F. (2004). Mahler's concepts of “symbiosis” and separation-individuation: Revisited, reevaluated, refined. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association52:511—533.
124.
Piper, W.E., Rosie, J.S., Joyce, A.S., & Azim, H.F.A. (1996). Time-Limited Day Treatment for Personality Disorders: Integration of Research and Practice in a Group Program. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
125.
Pole, N., & Jones, E.E. (1998). The talking cure revisited: Content analyses of a two-year psychodynamic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research8:171—189.
126.
Popper, K.R. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. London: Hutchinson.
127.
Ricoeur, P. (1965). Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation , transl. D. Savage. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.
128.
Robinson, P. (1993). Freud and His Critics. Berkeley : University of California Press.
129.
Rubovits-Seitz, P.F.D. (1998). Depth Psychological Understanding: The Methodologic Grounding of Clinical Interpretations. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
130.
Rustin, M. (1989). Observing infants: Reflections on methods. In Closely Observed Infants, ed. L. Miller, M. Rustin, M. Rustin, & J. Shuttleworth.London: Duckworth, pp. 52—98.
131.
Ryle, A., ED. (1995). Cognitive Analytic Therapy: Developments in Theory and Practice. New York: Wiley.
132.
Safran, J.D. (2001). When worlds collide: Psychoanalysis and the empirically supported treatment movement. Psychoanalytic Dialogues11:659—681.
133.
Sandler, J., Sandler, A.-M. , & Davies, R., EDS. ( 2000). Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy . London: Karnac Books.
134.
Schore, A.N. (2003). Affect Dysregulation and Disorders of the Self . New York: Norton.
135.
Segal, Z.V., & Blatt, S.J., EDS. (1993). The Self in Emotional Distress: Cognitive and Psychodynamic Perspectives. New York: Guilford Press.
136.
Shahar, G., Blatt, S.J., Zuroff, D.C., Krupnick, J.L., & Sotsky, S.M. (2004). Perfectionism impedes social relations and response to brief treatment for depression. Journal of Social &Clinical Psychology, 23:140—154.
137.
Shapiro, T., & Emde, R.N. (1995). Research in Psychoanalysis: Process, Development, Outcome. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
138.
Shedler, J. (2002). A new language for psychoanalytic diagnosis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association50:429—456.
139.
——— (2004). Review of J. Sandler et al. (eds.), Clinical and Observational Psychoanalytic Research: Roots of a Controversy. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association52:610—618.
140.
——— & Westen, D. (2004). Refining personality disorder diagnosis: Integrating science and practice. American Journal of Psychiatry161:1350—1365.
141.
Shevrin, H., & Bond, J.A. (1993). Repression and the unconscious. Psychodynamic Treatment Research: A Handbook for Clinical Practice, ed. N.E. Miller, L. Luborsky , J.P. Barber, & J P. Docherty.New York: Basic Books, pp. 307—325.
142.
——— ——— Brakel, L.A., Hertel, R.K., & Williams, W.J. (1996). Conscious and Unconscious Processes: Psychodynamic, Cognitive, and Neurophysiological Convergences. New York: Guilford Press.
143.
Siegel, P., Josephs, L., & Weinberger, J. (2002). Where's the text? The problem of validation in psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association50:407—428.
144.
Silverman, L.H. (1976). Psychoanalytic theory: “The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated.” American Psychologist31:621—637.
145.
Slade, A. (2004). The move from categories to process: Attachment phenomena and clinical evaluation. Infant Mental Health Journal25:269—283.
146.
Snow, C.P. (1959). The Two Cultures. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
147.
Solms, M. (2004). Freud returns. Scientific American290:82—88.
148.
Spence, D.P. (1982). Narrative Truth and Historical Truth: Meaning and Interpretation in Psychoanalysis. New York: Norton.
149.
——— (1990). The rhetorical voice of psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association38:579—603.
150.
——— (1994). The failure to ask the hard questions. In Psychotherapy Research and Practice: Bridging the Gap, ed. P.F. Talley, H.H. Strupp, & S.F. Butler. New York: Basic Books , pp. 19—38.
151.
Steiner, R. (2000). Introduction. In Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy, ed. J. Sandler , A.-M. Sandler, & R. Davies.London: Karnac Books, pp. 1—17.
152.
Stern, D.N. (1985). The Interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology. New York : Basic Books.
153.
——— (2000). The relevance of empirical infant research to psychoanalytic theory and practice. In Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy, ed. J. Sandler , A.-M. Sandler, & R. Davies.London: Karnac Books, pp. 73—90.
154.
Sulloway, F. (1979). Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend. New York: Basic Books.
155.
Talley, P.F., Strupp, H.H., & Butler, S.F. (1994). Psychotherapy Research and Practice: Bridging the Gap. New York: Basic Books.
156.
Tasman, A. (1998). Beyond the single case study. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association46:669—672.
157.
Thornton, E.M. (1983). Freud and Cocaine: The Freudian Fallacy. London: Blond & Briggs.
158.
Torrey, E.F. (1992). Freudian Fraud: The Malignant Effect of Freud's Theory on American Thought and Culture. New York: Harper Collins.
159.
Treat, T.A., & Weersing, V.R. (2005). Clinical psychology. In Encyclopedia of Statistics in Behavioral Science, ed. B. Everitt & D. Howel Vol. 1. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, pp. 1—12.
160.
Tuckett, D. (1994). The conceptualization and communication of clinical facts in psychoanalysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis75:865—870.
161.
Turner, T. (1996). James Crichton-Browne and the anti-psychoanalysts . In One Hundred Fifty Years of British Psychiatry: Volume II. The Aftermath, ed. H. Freeman & G.E. Berrios.London: Athlone, pp. 144—155.
162.
Tusti, N.F. (1991). Revised understanding of psychogenic autism. International Journal of Psychoanalysis72:585—592.
163.
——— (1994). The perpetuation of an error. Journal of Child Psychotherapy20:3—23.
164.
Urist, J. (1977). The Rorschach test and the assessment of object relations. Journal of Personality Assessment41:3—9.
165.
Wallerstein, R.S. (1986). Forty-two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press.
166.
——— (2000). Psychoanalytic research: Where do we disagree? In Clinical and Observational Research: Roots of a Controversy , ed. J. Sandler, A.-M. Sandler, & R. Davies.London: Karnac Books, pp. 27—31.
167.
———& Fonagy, P. (1999). Psychoanalytic research and the IPA: History, present status and future potential. International Journal of Psychoanalysis80:91—109.
168.
Westen, D. (1991). Social cognition and object relations. Psychological Bulletin109:429—455.
169.
——— (1998). The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psycho-dynamically informed psychological science. Psychological Bulletin124:333—371.
170.
——— (1999). The scientific status of unconscious processes: Is Freud really dead?Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association47:1061—1106.
171.
——— (2002a). The language of psychoanalytic discourse. Psychoanalytic Dialogues12:857—898.
172.
——— (2002b). Manual for the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scales (SCORS), Emory University.
173.
——— & Gabbard, G.O. (2002a). Developments in cognitive neuroscience: I. Conflict, compromise, and connectionism. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association50:53—98.
174.
——— ——— (2002b). Developments in cognitive neuroscience: II. Implications for theories of transference. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association50:99—134.
175.
——— & Shedler, J. (1999). Revising and assessing Axis II: II. Toward an empirically based and clinically useful classification of personality disorders . American Journal of Psychiatry156:273—285.
176.
Whittle, P. (2000). Experimental psychology and psychoanalysis: What can we learn from a century of misunderstanding? Neuro-Psychoanalysis1:233—245.
177.
Widlöcher, D. (1994). A case is not a fact. International Journal of Psychoanalysis75:1233—1244.
178.
Willett, J.B., Singer, J.D., & Martin, N.C. (1998). The design and analysis of longitudinal studies of development and psychopathology in context: Statistical models and methodological recommendations. Development & Psychopathology10:395—426.
179.
Wolff, P.H. (1996). The irrelevance of infant observations for psychoanalysis . Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association44:369— 392.
180.
Yin, R.K. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Rev. ed. London: Sage Publications.
