For every phenomenon there exists origins and developments. In this paper the psychological study of crowding is discussed in terms of its origins and some of its conceptual developments.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Altman, I. (forthcoming) The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, and CrowdingMonterey, Calif.: Brooks-Cole.
2.
--- ( 1973) "Some perspectives on the study of man-environment phenomena."Representative Research in Social Psychology4, 1 (January): 109-126.
3.
Barker, R. (1968) Ecological Psychology, Concepts and Methods for Studying the Environment of Human BehaviorStanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press.
4.
--- [ed.] (1963) The Stream of BehaviorNew York : Appleton-Century-Crofts.
5.
——— and P. Gump (1964) Big School, Small SchoolStanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press.
6.
Barker, R. and P. Schoggen (1973) Qualities of Community Life.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Baum, A. and S. Valins (1973) "Residential environments, group size, and crowding." Proceedings of the 81st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association.
9.
Calhoun, J. (1962) "Population density and social pathology."Sci. Amer.206: 139-148.
10.
Carson, R. (1962) The Silent SpringBoston: Houghton Mifflin .
11.
Choi, S., A. Mirjafari, and H. Weaver (1974) "A critical review of the concept of crowding and the proposal of an alternative approach."University of Hawaii. (unpublished)
12.
Christian, J. and D. Davis (1964) "Social and endocrine factors are integrated in the regulation of growth of mammalian populations."Science146 (December 18): 1550-1560.
13.
Christian, J. et al. (1961) "Phenomena associated with population density."Proceedings of the National Academy of Science47: 428-449.
14.
Commoner, B. (1963) Science and SurvivalNew York: Viking.
15.
Cooley, R. and G. Wandersford-Smith (1970) Congress and the EnvironmentSeattle: Univ. of Washington Press.
16.
Craik, K. (1970) "Environmental psychology," in New Directions in Psychology 4New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
17.
Crawi Ord, T. (1973) "Beliefs about birth control: a consistency theory analysis."Representative Research in Social Psychology4, 1 (January): 53-66.
18.
Darley, J. and B. Latane (1968) "Bystander intervention in emergencies: diffusion of responsibility."J. of Personality & Social Psychology8: 377-383.
19.
Desor, J. (1972) "Toward a psychological theory of crowding."J. of Personality & Social Psychology21, 1: 79-83.
20.
Dooley, B. (1974) "Crowding stress: the effects of social density on men with close or far personal space." Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. (unpublished)
21.
Dubos, R. (1965) Man AdaptingNew Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press .
22.
Ehrlich, P. (1968) The Population BombNew York: Ballantine.
23.
Esser, A. (1972) "A biosocial perspective on crowding," in J. Wohlwill and D. Carson (eds.), Environment and the Social Sciences: Perspectives and Applications.Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association .
24.
Everett, P., S. Hayward, and A. Meyers (1974) "The effects of a token reinforcement procedure on bus ridership."J. of Applied Behavior Analysis7, 1.
25.
Fawcett, J. (1970) Psychology and PopulationNew Haven, Conn.: Population Council.
26.
——— and F. Arnold (1973) "The value of children: theory and method."Representative Research in Social Psychology4: 23-26.
27.
Freedman, J., S. Klevansky , and P. Ehrlich ( 1971 ) "The effect of crowding on human task performance."J. of Applied Social Psychology1: 7-25.
28.
Freedman, J. L., A. S. Levy , R. W. Buchanan, and J. Price (1972) "Crowding and human aggressiveness."J. of Exper. Social Psychology8: 502-517.
29.
Galle, O., W. Gove, and J. M. McPherson (1972) "Population density and social pathology: what are the relationships for man?"Science176 (April): 23-30.
30.
Galle, O., J. McCarthy, and W. Zimmern (1973) "Population density, social structure, and interpersonal violence: an intermetropolitan test of competing models." Presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association (August).
31.
Glass, D. and J. Singer (1972) Urban Stress: Experiments on Noise and Social StressorsNew York: Academic Press .
32.
Griffitt, W. and R. Veitch (1971) "Hot and crowded."J. of Personality & Social Psychology17: 92-98.
33.
Hall, E. (1966) The Hidden DimensionNew York: Doubleday.
34.
——— (1959) The Silent LanguageNew York : Doubleday.
35.
Hoffman, L. and M. Hoffman (1973) "The value of children to parents," in J. T. Fawcett (ed.), Psychological Perspectives on Population.New York: Basic Books.
36.
Hutt, C. and M. Vaizey (1966) "Differential effects of group density on social behavior."Nature209: 1371-1372.
37.
Insel, P. and R. Moos (1974) "Psychological environments."Amer. Psychologist29, 3 (March): 179-188.
38.
Kelly, J. (1970) "Toward an ecological conception of preventive intervention." in D. Adelson and B. Kalis (eds.), Community Psychology and Mental Health.Scranton, Pa. Chandler.
39.
Lewin, K. (1946) "Behavior and development as a function of the total situation," in L. Carmichael (ed.), Manual of Child Psychology.New York: John Wiley.
40.
——— (1936) Principles of Topological PsychologyNew York: McGraw.
41.
Linder, D. (1974) Personal SpaceNew Jersey: General Learning Press .
42.
Loo, C. (1973a) "Important issues in researching the effects of crowding on humans."Representative Research in Social Psychology4: 219-226.
43.
——— (1973b) "Derivmg hypotheses for researching the effects of crowding in experimental settings." Presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Montreal (August).
44.
--- ( 1972) "The effects of spatial density on the social behavior of children."Journal of Applied Social Psychology2: 372-381.
45.
McGrew, P. (1970) "Social and spatial density effects on spacing behavior in preschool children."J. of Child Psychology & Psychiatry11: 197-205.
46.
Milgram, S. (1970) "The experience of living in cities."Science167 (March 13): 1461-1468.
47.
--- and P. Hollander (1964) "Murder they heard."Nation25: 602-604.
48.
Murray, H. (1938) Exploration in PersonalityNew York: Oxford Univ. Press.
49.
Newman, O. (1973) Defensible SpaceNew York: Macmillan.
50.
Proshansky, H., W. Ittelson , and L. Rivlin (1970 ) "Freedom of choice and behavior in a physical setting," in H. Proshansky, W. Ittelson, and L. Rivlin (eds.), Environmental Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
51.
Ross, M., B. Layton, B. Erickson, and J. Schopler (1973) "Affect, facial regard, and reactions to crowding."J. of Personality & Social Psychology28, 1: 69-76.
52.
Schmitt, R. C. (1966) "Density, health, and social disorganization."J. of the Amer. Institute of Planners32: 38-40.
53.
Sherrod, D. (1974) "Crowding, perceived control, and behavioral aftereffects."J. of Applied Social Psychology4, 2: 171-186.
54.
Sommer, R. (1969) Personal SpaceEnglewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall .
55.
——— (1959) "Studies in personal space."Sociometry22: 247-260.
56.
Stokols, D. (1972) "A social-psychological model of human crowding phenomena."J. of the Amer. Institute of Planners38: 72-83.
57.
———, M. Rall, B. Pinner, and J. Schopler (1973) "Physical, social, and personal determinants of the perception of crowding."Environment & Behavior5: 87-116.
58.
Sundstrom, E. (1974) "Crowding: some theoretical considerations." Presented at the convention of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago (May).
59.
Wicker, A. (1973) "Undermanning theory and research: implications for the study of psychological and behavioral effects of excess populations."Representative Research in Social Psychology4: 185-206.
60.
Wohlwill, J. (1970) "The emerging discipline of environmental psychology."Amer. Psychologist25: 303-312.
61.
Zifferblatt, S. and C. G. Hendricks (1974) "Applied behavioral analysis of societal problems: population change a case in point."Amer. Psychologist29, 10 (October): 750-761.
62.
Zlutnick, S. and I. Altman (1971) "Crowding and human behavior," in J. Wohlwill and D. Carson (eds.), Environment and the Social Sciences: Perspectives and Applications.Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.