To explain the genesis of mass murder committed by students at their schools, the authors propose a five-stage sequential model in which several criminological theories (strain theory, control theory, and routine activities theory) are brought to bear collectively to demonstrate their cumulative effect. These stages are as follows: chronic strain, uncontrolled strain, acute strain, the planning stage, and the massacre. Long-term frustrations (chronic strains) experienced early in life or in adolescence lead to social isolation, and the resultant lack of prosocial support systems (uncontrolled strain) in turn allows a short-term negative event (acute strain), be it real or imagined, to be particularly devastating. As such, the acute strain initiates a planning stage, wherein a mass killing is fantasized about as a masculine solution to regain lost feelings of control, and actions are taken to ensure the fantasy can become reality. The planning process concludes in a massacre facilitated by weapons that enable mass destruction in schoolrooms and campuses, where students are closely packed together. Based on this analysis, prevention strategies are suggested.
Agger, B., & Luke, T. (2008). There is a gunman on campus: Tragedy and terror at Virginia Tech. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
2.
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-87.
3.
Agnew, R., Brezina, T., Wright, J.P., & Cullin, F.T. (2002). Strain, personality traits, and delinquency: Extending general strain theory. Criminology, 40(1), 43-72.
4.
Agnew, R., & White, H. (1992). An empirical test of general strain theory. Criminology, 30(4), 475-500.
5.
Athens, L. (1992). The creation of dangerous violent criminals. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
6.
Blau, J. (1999). Illusions of prosperity: America's working families in an age of economic insecurity. New York: Oxford University Press.
7.
Bluestone, B., & Harrison, B. (1982). The deindustrialization of America: Plant closings, community abandonment, and the dismantling of basic industry. New York: Basic Books.
8.
Butterfield, F. (2001, March 8). Tips by students result in arrests at 5 schools. The New York Times, p. A20.
9.
Chen, E. (1995). Deadly scholarship: The true story of Lu Gang and mass murder in America's heartland. New York: Carol.
10.
Chester, G. (1993). Berserk! Terrifying true stories of notorious mass murders and the deranged killers who committed them. New York: St. Martin's.
11.
Cho, D., & Gardner, A. (2007, April 21). An isolated boy in a world of strangers . The Washington Post, p. A1.
12.
Cohen, L., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588-608.
13.
Dietz, P. (1986). Mass, serial, and sensational homicide. Bulletin of the New England Medical Society, 62, 477-491.
14.
Dollard, J., Doob, L.W., Miller, N.E., Mowrer, O.H., & Sears, R.R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
15.
Duwe, G. (2004). The patterns and prevalence of mass murder in twentieth-century America. Justice Quarterly, 21(4), 729-761.
16.
Duwe, G. (2007). Mass murder in the United States: A history. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
17.
Edmunds, G., & Kendrick, D.C. (1980). The measurement of human aggressiveness. New York: Wiley .
18.
Elliott, D.S., Ageton, S.S., & Cantor, R.J. (1979). An integrated theoretical perspective on delinquent behavior. Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, 16, 3-27.
19.
Felson, M. (1994). Crime and everyday life: Insight and implications for society. Thousands Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.
20.
Fox, J.A., & Levin, J. (1994a). Firing back: The growing threat of workplace homicide. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 536, 16-30.
21.
Fox, J.A., & Levin, J. (1994b). Overkill: Mass murder and serial killing exposed . New York: Plenum.
22.
Fox, J.A., & Levin, J. (1998). Multiple homicide: Patterns of serial and mass murder. Crime and Justice, 23, 407-455.
23.
Fox, J.A., & Levin, J. (2005). Extreme killing: Understanding serial and mass murder. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
24.
Fox, J.A., Levin, J., & Quinet, K. (2008). The will to kill: Making sense of senseless murder (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
25.
Fox, J.A., & Savage, J. (2009). Mass murder goes to college: An examination of changes on college campuses following VirginiaTech. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(10), 1286-1308.
26.
Gosselin, D.K. (2000). Heavy hands: An introduction to the crimes of domestic violence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
27.
Grossman, D.C., Neckerman, H.J., Koepsell, T.D., Liu, P.Y., Asher, K.N., Beland, K., et al. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school: A randomized controlled trial . Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 1605-1611.
28.
Hagan, J., Hirschfield, P., & Shedd, C. (2002). First and last words: Apprehending the social and legal facts of an urban high school shooting. Sociological Methods and Research, 31(2), 218-255.
29.
Hermann, M., & Finn, A. (2002). An ethical and legal perspective on the role of school counselors in preventing violence in schools. Professional School Counseling, 6(1), 46-54.
30.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley : University of California Press.
31.
Holmes, R.M., & Holmes, S.T. (2001). Mass murder in the United States. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
32.
Kimmel, M.S., & Mahler, M. (2003). Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence . American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 1439-1458.
33.
Larkin, R. (2007). Comprehending Columbine. Philadelphia : Temple University Press.
34.
Leary, M., Kowalski, R., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 202-214.
35.
Levin, J. (2008). Serial killers and sadistic murderers: Up close and personal. Amherst, NY: Prometheus .
36.
Levin, J., & Fox, J.A. (1985). Mass murder: America's growing menace. New York: Plenum.
37.
Linsky, A.S., & Straus, M.A. (1986). Social stress in the United States. Dover, MA: Auburn House.
38.
Madfis, E., & Arford, T. (2008, February). Investigating precipitating factors in mass murder: Do "last straws" get to the bottom of rampage killing or merely scratch the surface?Paper presented at the conference of the Eastern Sociological Society, New York.
39.
Meloy, J.R., Hempel, A.G., Mohandie, K., Shiva, A.A., & Gray, B.T. (2001). Offender and offense characteristics of a nonrandom sample of adolescent mass murders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 719-728.
40.
Meloy, J.R., Hempel, A.G., Gray, B.T., Mohandie, K., Shiva, A.A., & Richards, T. (2004). A comparative analysis of North American adolescent and adult mass murderers. Behavioral Sciences and the Law , 22(3), 291-309.
41.
Mendoza, A. (2002). Teenage rampage. London: Virgin .
42.
Merton, R.K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3, 672-682.
43.
Merton, R.K. (1968). Social theory and social structure. New York: Free Press.
44.
Newman, K., Fox, C., Roth, W., Mehta, J., & Harding, D. (2004). Rampage: The social roots of school shootings . New York: Basic Books.
45.
Oliver, J., & Ryan, M. (2003). Lesson one: The ABCs of life. New York: Fireside.
46.
Palermo, G.B., & Ross, L.E. (1999). Mass murder, suicide, and moral development: Can we separate the adults from the juveniles?International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 43(1), 8-20.
47.
Palmer, S. (1960). Psychology of murder. New York : Crowell.
48.
Rifkin, J. (1995). The end of work: The decline of the global labor force and the dawn of the post-market era. New York: Putnam.
49.
Sherman, L., & Burke, R. (1984). The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49, 261-272.
50.
Smelser, N. (1962). Theory of collective behavior. New York: Free Press.
51.
Tittle, C.R. (1995). Control balance: Toward a general theory of deviance . Boulder, CO: Westview.
52.
Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2004). The final report and findings of the safe school initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education.
