This article examines the evolution of presidential campaigning in a digital era. The authors contend that changes in political processes brought on by an extended caucus system, voting initiatives, and advances in communication technology are inspiring the repersonalization of presidential elections. Cyberpolitics draw candidates, parties, and citizens into a tighter web of connections that reinvigorates the personalized style of campaigning popular in earlier times in U.S. political history.
Associated Press. (2003, November 11). Several states move to cancel primaries. Washington Times. Retrieved from http://washingtontimes.com/national/20031109-114400-4808r.htm
2.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-252, 116 Stat. 1666.
3.
Blaemire, R., & Russell, R. (2005, February). Opinion: Developing a Web-based voter file system. Campaigns & Elections. Retrieved from http://www.campaignline.com/printededition/page.cfm?pageid=286&navid=44
4.
Boorstin, D. (1961). The image: A guide to pseudo-events in America. New York: Harper & Row.
5.
Cartographic variations on the 2000 presidential election theme. (2000). Retrieved from the University of California-!Santa Barbara Department of Geography Web site: http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/%7Esara/html/mapping/election/map.html
6.
Castells, M. (1996). The rise of the network society. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
7.
Center for Public Integrity. (2005, January 5). Overall contributions to 527 committees. Retrieved from http://store.publicintegrity.org/527/search.aspx?act=con&sec=ocon
8.
Center for Responsive Politics. (2005). Political parties. Retrieved from http://www.opensecrets.org/parties/index.asp
9.
A clean count? (2004, October 18). Newsweek, 143, 30-40.
10.
Culture files: Michael Moore’s Fahrenheit 9/11 among top DVDs. (2004, October 16). The Washington Dispatch. Retrieved from http://www.washingtondispatch.com/culture/archives/000660html
11.
DeBord, G. (1983). Society of the spectacle. Detroit, MI: Black & White. (Original work published 1967)
12.
Election Reform Information Project. (2004, December). Briefing: The 2004 election. Available from http://www.electiononline.org
13.
Federal Election Commission. (2004). 2004 presidential primary dates and candidate filing deadlines for ballot access. Retrieved from http://www.fec.gov/pages/2004pdates.htm
14.
Fineman, H. (2004, October 4). The ground game. Newsweek, 143, 32-34.
15.
Frank, T. (2004). What’s the matter with Kansas? How conservatives won the heart of America. New York: Henry Holt.
16.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
17.
Goldfarb, J. C. (1991). The cynical society: The culture of politics and the politics of culture in American life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
18.
Gray, C. H. (2002). Cyborg citizen: Politics in the posthuman age. New York: Routledge.
19.
The great divide. (2004, January 4.) Des Moines Register, pp. 1A, 6A-7A.
20.
Gregg, B. (2003). Coping in politics with indeterminate norms: A theory of enlightened localism. Albany: State University of New York Press.
21.
Gronbeck, B. E., & Miller, A. H. (1994). The study of presidential campaigning: Yesterday’s campaigns and today’s issues. In A. H. Miller & B. E. Gronbeck (Eds.), Presidential campaigns and American self-images (pp. 3-11). Boulder, CO: Westview.
22.
Hauser, G. A. (2004). Rhetorical democracy and civic engagement. In G. A. Hauser & A. Grim (Eds.), Rhetorical democracy: Discursive practices of civic engagement (pp. 1-14). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
Help America Vote Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81.
24.
Horton, D., & Wohl, R. R. (1956). Mass communication and parasocial interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance. Psychiatry, 19, 215-229.
25.
Howard Dean campaign implements rich Internet applications from Lazlo systems to drive event attendance. (2004, January 19). Business Wire. Retrieved from LexisNexis database.
26.
John Kerry: In his own words. (2004, October 17). Des Moines Register, p. 11A.
27.
Knoblock, K. (Producer). (2004). Celsius 41.11: The temperature at which the brain begins to die [Motion picture]. United States: Adams County Production for Citizens United.
28.
Lester, J. (in press). Integrating and evolving a mob: The growth of a smart mob into a wireless community of practice. In Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
Lippmann, W. (1955). The public philosophy. New York: New American Library.
30.
McGinniss, J. (1969). The selling of the president. New York: Trident Books.
31.
Merelman, R. M. (1976). The dramaturgy of politics. In J. E. Combs & R. W. Mansfield (Eds.), The uses of communication in society (pp. 285-301). New York: Hastings House.
32.
Moore, M. (Producer). (2004). Fahrenheit 9/11 [Motion picture]. United States: Miramax.
33.
Nagourney, A. (2004, November 4). Terrorism, Iraq and economy are at top of his agenda. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/04/politics/campaign/04elect.html
34.
Patterson, T. E., & McClure, R. D. (1976). The unseeing eye: The myth of television power in national politics. New York: G. P. Putnam.
35.
Pelosi, A. (Producer). (2004). Alexandra Pelosi’s diary of a political tourist [Television broadcast]. New York: Home Box Office.
36.
Peterson, A. (Director). (2004). FahrenHype 9/11 [Motion picture]. United States: Savage Pictures.
37.
Piven, F. F., & Cloward, R. A. (2000). Why Americans still don’t vote: And why politicians want it that way. Boston: Beacon.
38.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
39.
Rheingold, H. (2002). Smart mobs: The next social revolution. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
40.
Rock the Vote. (2004). 2004 primaries and elections. Retrieved from http://www.rockthevote.com/rtv_primaries.php
41.
Sifry, M. L. (2004, November 22). The rise of open-source politics. The Nation, 280, 14.
42.
Tenpas, K. D. (2003, April). Campaigning to govern: Presidents seeking reelection. PSOnline, 199-202.
43.
Retrieved from http://apsanet.orgTocqueville, A. de. (2004). Democracy in America (A. Goldhammer, Trans.). New York: Library of America. (Original work published 1831)
44.
Toffler, A., & Toffler, H. (1995). Creating a new civilization: The politics of the third wave. Atlanta, GA: Turner.
45.
Tulis, J. (1987). The rhetorical presidency. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
46.
Turow, J. (1997). Breaking up America: Advertisers and the new media world. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
47.
Von Drehle, D. (2004, January 11). Gen engineering: Clark seems to splice from Dean to mimic Web personality. The Washington Post, p. A05.
48.
Wattenberg, M. P. (1990). The decline of American political parties 1952-1988. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
49.
Weiss, T. R. (2003, July 3). Democrat Howard Dean strikes a chord with campaign. Computer World. Retrieved from http://www.computerworld.com/printthis/2003/0.4814.82771,00.html
50.
Wiese, D. R. (2004). The rhetoric of cyber-politics: Seeking the public in presidential candidate Websites 2004. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
51.
Wolf, G. (2004, January). How the Internet invented Howard Dean. WIRED. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.01/dean.html?pg=1&topic=&topicset=