Affirmative action in government is important not only for the equitable distribution of employment opportunities but as a symbol of the nation's commitment to end discrimination against minorities and women and to make government more responsive to their interests. This article examines the development of affirmative action policy in employment at the federal, state, and local levels. Recent federal political appointments are noted. Research that has attempted to assess the effects of affirmative action is discussed.
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References
1.
1. See Thomas B. Edsall, “A Political Powder Keg,”Washington Post National Weekly Edition, 14-20 Jan. 1991, p. 6.
2.
2. John Nalbandian and Donald E. Klingner, “Conflict and Values in Public Personnel Administration,”Public Administration Quarterly, Spring 1987, pp. 17-33.
3.
see also David H. Rosenbloom, Federal Equal Employment Opportunity (New York: Praeger, 1977).
4.
4. Samuel Krislov, The Negro in Federal Employment (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1967), p. 77.
5.
5. Ibid., p. 5.
6.
6. David H. Rosenbloom, “Equal Employment Opportunity, Affirmative Action, and Public Personnel Management,” in Public Personnel Update, ed. Michael Cohen and Robert T. Golembiewski (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1984), p. 33.
7.
7. See Charles Gilbert, “The Framework of Administrative Responsibility,”Journal of Politics, 21:373-407 (1959).
8.
8. Grace Hall Saltzstein, “Representative Bureaucracy and Bureaucratic Responsibility,”Administration & Society, 10(4):465-475 (Feb. 1979).
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9. For an excellent literature review, see Kenneth J. Meier, Joseph Stewart, Jr., and Donald Menzel, “Active Representation in Educational Bureaucracies: Policy Impacts” (Paper delivered at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, 1991).
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10. Kenneth J. Meier and Lloyd G. Nigro, “Representative Bureaucracy and Policy Preferences,”Public Administration Review, 36:458-469 (July-Aug. 1976).
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11. David H. Rosenbloom and Jeannette G. Featherstonhaugh, “Passive and Active Representation in the Federal Service,”Social Science Quarterly, 57:873-882 (Mar. 1977).
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12. Frank J. Thompson, “Minority Groups in Public Bureaucracies,”Administration & Society, 8:201-226 (Aug. 1976).
13.
see also Meier, Stewart, and Menzel, “Active Representation in Educational Bureaucracies.”
14.
14. John J. Hindera, “Representative Bureaucracy” (Paper delivered at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, 1991).
15.
Krislov , Negro in Federal Employment. This section relies heavily on these sources.
16.
16. U.S., Statutes at Large, vol. 54, pt. 1, p. 1211.
17.
17. U.S., Federal Register, 13 Nov. 1940, pp. 4445-4448.
18.
18. Don Hellriegel and Larry Short, “Equal Employment Opportunity in the Federal Government,”Public Administration Review, 32:851-858 (Nov.-Dec. 1972).
19.
19. U.S., Federal Register, 27 June 1941, p. 3109.
20.
20. Krislov, Negro in Federal Employment, p. 34.
21.
21. U.S., Federal Register, 28 July 1948, pp. 4311-4313.
22.
22. Rosenbloom, Federal Equal Employment Opportunity, p. 64.
23.
23. Ibid.
24.
24. U.S., Federal Register, 19 Jan. 1955, pp. 409-411.
25.
25. Ibid., 8 Mar. 1961, pp. 1977-79.
26.
26. Rosenbloom, Federal Equal Employment Opportunity, pp. 68-69.
27.
27. U.S., Civil Service Commission, Study of Minority Group Employment in the Federal Government: 1965 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1965).
28.
28. Krislov, Negro in Federal Employment, pp. 42-45.
29.
29. U.S., Federal Register, 28 Sept. 1965, pp. 12319-12325.
32. Arthur A. Fletcher, “Whatever Happened to the Philadelphia Plan?”Business and Society Review/Innovation, 5:24-28 (Spring 1973).
33.
33. U.S., Statutes at Large, vol. 86, pt. 1, p. 103.
34.
34. U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Government Operations, Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1978: Message from the President of the United States, 95th Cong., 2d sess. House Document 95-295.
36. Kellough, Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Policy, pp. 27-37.
37.
37. Ibid., pp. 36-39.
38.
38. Gregory B. Lewis, “Changing Patterns of Sexual Discrimination in Federal Employment,”Review of Public Personnel Administration, 7(2):1-13 (Spring 1987).
39.
39. J. Edward Kellough and David H. Rosenbloom, “Representative Bureaucracy and EEOC,” in The Promise and Paradox of Bureaucratic Reform, ed. Patricia W. Ingraham and David H. Rosenbloom (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992).
40.
idem , “Integration in the Public Workplace,”Public Administration Review, 50:557-566 (Sept.-Oct. 1990).
41.
41. J. Edward Kellough and Euel Elliott, “Demographic and Organizational Influences on Racial/Ethnic and Gender Integration in Federal Agencies,”Social Science Quarterly, 72(1) (Mar. 1992).
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42. See Romeo B. Garrett, The Presidents and the Negro (Peoria, IL: Bradley University, 1982).
43.
43. U.S., Commission on Civil Rights, Equal Opportunity in Presidential Appointments (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, June 1983), p. 2. Data for the Carter years reflect all political appointments, fulltime and part-time, requiring and not requiring Senate approval. Subsequent data from the Reagan and Bush administrations are equally comprehensive.
44.
44. Data provided by the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.
45.
45. Data provided by the White House Office of Presidential Personnel.
46.
46. U.S., Commission on Civil Rights, For All the People... by All the People (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1969).
47.
47. Ibid., pp. 91-92.
48.
48. Ibid., p. 108.
49.
49. N. Joseph Cayer and Lee Sigelman, “Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-1975, Public Administration Review, 40(5):443-450 (Sept.-Oct. 1980).
50.
50. Rita Mae Kellyet al., “Public Managers in the States,”Public Administration Review, 51:402-412 (Sept.-Oct. 1991).
51.
51. Lana Stein, “Representative Local Government,”Journal of Politics, 48:694-713 (Aug. 1986).
52.
52. Kenneth R. Mladenka, “Blacks and Hispanics in Urban Politics,”American Political Science Review, 83:165-191 (Mar. 1989).
53.
53. See Frances F. Piven, “Militant Civil Servants in New York City,” in Politics in America, ed. Walter D. Burnham (New York: Van Nostrand, 1973), pp. 297-326.
54.
54. See Grace Hall Saltzstein, “Female Mayors and Women in Municipal Jobs,”American Journal of Political Science, 30:140-164 (Feb. 1986).
