Investigations by political psychologists reveal some of the changes in public opinion, gender consciousness, and gender ideology that have taken place since the beginning of the women's movement. There is more general acceptance of equality between the sexes, but even young people still show some adherence to traditional divisions of roles, and traditional gender ideology still plays a part in maintaining inequality. There is still widespread support for a women's movement, especially among women.
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References
1.
See also Virginia Sapiro, Women in American Society (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1990).
2.
2. For a more detailed summary of the current situation of women, see Sapiro, Women in American Society.
3.
3. All figures from this survey are found in U.S., Department of Education, Digest of Education Statistics, 1988 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1987), p. 334.
4.
For more discussion of gender and political socialization, see Virginia Sapiro, The Political Integration of Women: Roles, Socialization, and Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
5.
Virginia Sapiro , “The Women's Movement and the Creation of Gender Consciousness: Social Movements as Socialization Agents,” in Political Socialization, Citizenship Education, and Democracy, ed. O. Ichilov (New York: Teachers College Press, 1990), pp. 266, 280.
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6. Milleret al., “Group Consciousness and Political Participation.”
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Gail Pheterson , “Alliances between Women: Overcoming Internalized Oppression and Internalized Domination,”Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 12:146, 160 (Autumn 1986).
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8. Sapiro, Women in American Society, p. 392.
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9. Sapiro, “Women's Movement and the Creation of Gender Consciousness.”
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10. Roberta S. Sigel, “The Case for Educating for Gender Equality,” in Political Socialization, Citizenship Education, and Democracy, ed. Ichilov, pp. 243, 265.
11.
Virginia Sapiro , “The Effects of Gender Segregation of Work on Political Orientations and Behavior” (Paper delivered at the Scientific Meeting of the International Society for Political Psychology, Amsterdam, 1986).
12.
More complete discussion of the following and related discussion may be found in Sapiro, “Effects of Gender Segregation.”
13.
Rita J. Simon and Jean M. Landis, “Report: Women's and Men's Attitudes about a Woman's Place and Role,” ibid., 53:265, 276 (Summer 1989).
14.
14. All information on the 1989 New York Times/CBS News poll is drawn from the unpublished data memorandum “Women's Lives: A Scorecard of Change” except where New York Times articles are cited.
15.
15. Virginia Sapiro, “News from the Front: Inter-Sex and Intergenerational Conflict over the Status of Women,”Western Political Quarterly, 33:260, 277 (June 1980).
16.
16. For example, some influential sociobiologists—who are male—explain violence against women as part of men's biological nature.
17.
Deborrah S. Kalmuss and Murray A. Straus, “Feminist, Political, and Economic Determinants of Wife Abuse Services,” in The Dark Side of Families, ed. D. Finkelhoret al. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983), pp. 363, 396.
18.
18. Susan T. Fiske and Patricia W. Linville, “What Does the Schema Concept Buy Us?”Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6:543, 557 (Dec. 1980).
19.
19. Sandra L. Bem, “Gender Schema Theory and Its Implications for Child Development: Raising Gender-Aschematic Children in a Gender-Schematic Society,”Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 8:596, 616 (Summer 1983).
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20. Hazel Marcuset al., “Self-Schemas and Gender,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1):38, 50 (1982).
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21. Burt, “Cultural Myths and Supports for Rape.”
22.
22. Patricia Yancey Martin and Robert A. Hummer, “Fraternities and Rape on Campus,”Gender & Society, 3:457, 473 (Dec. 1989).
23.
23. Kathleen J. Ferraro and John M. Johnson, “How Women Experience Battering: The Process of Victimization,”Social Problems, 30:325, 339 (Feb. 1983).
24.
24. Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), p. 282.
25.
25. E. J. Dionne, Jr., “Struggle for Work and Family Fuels Movement,”New York Times, 22 Aug. 1989.
26.
26. Simon and Landis, “Report: Women's and Men's Attitudes,” p. 276.
