One of the goals of peace studies is to nourish a commitment to nonviolent social change. To accomplish this, it is imperative that teachers educate accordingly, both in what they teach and in how they teach. This article explores that idea by examining the key terms: “education,”“nonviolence,” and “social change.” First, definitions of the word “education” are examined, and it is argued that peace studies is education that is liberal and liberating. This leads to a discussion of the concept of nonviolence, which is presented in terms of three issues: violence and human nature, structural violence, and personal commitment to nonviolence. Finally, the concept of social change is examined in its relationship to the notion of power, to the importance of envisioning a better world, and to the importance of group action. Two models of social change are offered. Finally, classroom examples are provided that illustrate ways in which both content and pedagogy can contribute to the goal of education for nonviolent social change.
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References
1.
1. While the quotation is attributed to Muste, he in fact “borrowed [it] from a French pacifist during World War II.”Jo Ann Robinson, “A. J. Muste: Prophet in the Wilderness of the Modern World,” in Peace Heroes in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Charles DeBenedetti (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. 166.
2.
2. For a discussion of Socrates' ideas in relationship to seminar education, see K. M. Weigert, “Sermonizing on the Great Books,”The Educational Forum, 48(2): 155-164 (Winter 1984).
3.
3. Ernest L. Boyer, College: The Undergraduate Experience in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), p. 111.
4.
4. Ernest L. Boyer and Fred M. Hechinger, Higher Learning in the Nation's Service (Washington, DC: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1981), p. 60.
5.
5. The idea of liberating education is further developed in Weigert, “Sermonizing on the Great Books,” pp. 156-157.
6.
6. Mortimer J. Adler, The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto (New York: Macmillan, 1982), p. 29.
7.
7. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Seabury Press, 1970), pp. 57-74.
8.
see, for example, “FACT FILE: Attitudes and Characteristics of This Year's Freshmen,”Chronicle of Higher Education, 20 Jan, 1988, pp. A35-A36.
9.
9. Charles S. Claxton and Patricia H. Murrell, Learning Styles: Implications for Improving Educational Practices (College Station, TX: Association for the Study of Higher Education, 1987).
10.
10. For ideas on classroom cooperative education, see Roger T. Johnson and David W. Johnson, “Cooperative Learning,”In Context, 18:34-36 (Winter 1988).
11.
11. See, for example, the resources cited in Peace and World Order Studies: A Curriculum Guide, 4th ed., ed. Barbara J. Wien (New York: World Policy Institute, 1984), pp. 70-126.
12.
12. Johan Galtung, “Twenty-five Years of Peace Research: Ten Challenges and Some Responses,”Journal of Peace Research, 22(2): 144-145 (1985).
14. “Declaration of Seville,”COPRED Peace Chronicle, 11(4):4 (Aug. 1986).
15.
15. Birgit Brock-Utne, Educating for Peace: A Feminist Perspective (New York: Pergamon Press, 1985), p. 71.
16.
16. Ibid., p. 105.
17.
17. One important resource is Betty A. Reardon, Sexism and the War System (New York: Teachers College Press, 1985).
18.
18. Christopher Kruegler and Patricia Parkman, “Identifying Alternatives to Political Violence: An Educational Imperative,”Harvard Educational Review, 55(1): 109-110 (Feb. 1985).
19.
19. See the work of Gene Sharp (for example, Making Europe Unconquerable: The Potential of Civilian-based Deterrence and Defense [Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1985]) and that of the Civilian-Based Defense Association through its newsletter, Civilian-Based Defense: News & Opinion.
20.
20. See Galtung, “Twenty-five Years of Peace Research,” pp. 145-147.
21.
21. Ibid., p. 145.
22.
22. Ruth Leger Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures, 1987, 12th ed. (Washington, DC: World Priorities, 1987).
23.
23. Boyer, College, p. 281.
24.
24. Following the practice of the editors in Break-through, I place the words in quotation marks “because we insist that no nation has `arrived,' that all nations are developing, and that they are doing so in ways that cannot be measured by economics alone.” (Boldface in original.) Patricia M. Mische and Melissa Merkling, eds., “Education for a Global Future,”Breakthrough, 8(3-4):5 (Spring-Summer 1987).
25.
25. K. M. Weigert, “Experiential Learning and Peace Education: On Visiting Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp” (Paper delivered at the Sixteenth Annual Conference of the Consortium on Peace Research, Education and Development, Milwaukee, WI, 14 Nov. 1987).
26.
26. John Howard Yoder, What Would You Do? A Serious Answer to a Standard Question (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1983).
27.
27. Elizabeth Anne McGuinness, People Waging Peace (San Pedro, CA: Alberti Press, 1988).
28.
28. James W. Vander Zanden, The Social Experience: An Introduction to Sociology (New York: Random House, 1988), p. 590.
29.
29. Reardon, Sexism and the War System, p. 95.
30.
30. Bill Moyer, The Movement Action Plan: A Strategic Framework Describing the Eight Stages of Successful Social Movements (Cambridge, MA: Movement for a New Society, 1987), p. 2.
31.
31. Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, pt. 1, Power and Struggle (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1973), p. 4.
32.
32. An especially helpful resource that presents material ranging from developing a theory of social change to practical skills needed to effect such change is Virginia Cooveret al., Resource Manual for a Living Revolution (Philadelphia: New Society, 1985).
33.
See also Mark Sommer, Beyond the Bomb: Living without Nuclear Weapons, A Field Guide to Alternative Strategies for Building a Stable Peace (Chesnut Hill, MA: Expro Press, 1985).
34.
34. See, for example, Robert N. Bellahet al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1985).
35.
35. See, for example, William L. Shirer, Gandhi: A Memoir (New York: Washington Square Press, 1979).
36.
36. See, for example, Ralph B. Levering, “Martin Luther King, Jr.: The Challenge of Inclusive Peace-making,” in Peace Heroes, ed. DeBenedetti, pp. 198-226.
37.
37. George Lakey, Powerful Peacemaking: A Strategy for a Living Revolution (Philadelphia: New Society, 1987), pp. 37-44.
38.
38. See, for example, the film The Business of Hunger, produced by Maryknoll Media Relations (1984).
39.
39. Sharp, Politics of Nonviolent Action.
40.
40. See, for example, Renny Golden and Michael McConnell, Sanctuary: The New Underground Railroad (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985).
41.
41. Hildegard Goss-Mayr, “When Prayer and Revolution Became People Power,”Fellowship, 53(3):8-11 (Mar. 1987).
42.
42. For a variety of theoretical and empirical studies on issues of social movements, see the annual series Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change: A Research Annual, ed. Louis Kriesberg (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press).
43.
43. Lakey, Powerful Peacemaking.
44.
44. Ibid., p. 9.
45.
45. Ibid., p. xxiv.
46.
46. Moyer, Movement Action Plan.
47.
47. Ibid., p. 1.
48.
48. Olivia Frey, “The Pedagogy of Peace,”Peace and Change, 10(2):93-99 (Summer 1984).
49.
49. I would be happy to send interested readers a copy of the form I use.
50.
Frey , “Pedagogy of Peace,” pp. 94-95.
51.
51. Donald P. McNeill, C.S.C., “Afterword, Experiential Justice and Peace Education: Reflections on Forms and Foundations,” in Justice and Peace Education: Models for College and University Faculty, ed. David M. Johnson (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986), p. 233.
52.
52. Ibid., pp. 233-34.
53.
53. Center for Global Education, Crossing Borders, Challenging Boundaries (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg College, 1988), p. 25.
54.
54. For a helpful resource for students, see Daniel C. Thomas, Guide to Careers and Graduate Education in Peace Studies (Amherst, MA: Five College Program in Peace and World Security Studies, 1987).
