In 1946 Senator J. William Fulbright introduced and guided through Congress legislation establishing an international exchange program in education. The Fulbright program, which has produced the largest migration of students and scholars in modern history, was the result first of the senator's personal experience. His goal was to make available to thousands the enlightening experience of foreign study and travel he had enjoyed as a Rhodes scholar. The exchange legislation was also an integral part of the internationalist movement that swept American in the mid-1940s. Finally, Fulbright's brainchild was a result of his disillusionment with America's diplomatic leadership and his determination to raise up an educated, sophisticated elite capable of guiding the nation and the world.
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References
1.
1. See Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: The Triumph of Internationalism in America during World War II (New York: Atheneum, 1967).
2.
2. See Henry J. Kellermann, Cultural Relations as an Instrument of U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Department of State, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, 1978).
3.
3. I. L. Kandel, U.S. Activities in International Cultural Relations (Washington, DC: American Council on Education Studies, 1945), p. 40.
4.
4. Richard L. Strout, “Changing Cannons to Cultural Currency,”Christian Science Monitor, 2 Mar. 1946.
5.
5. William Starr Meyers, The Foreign Policy of Herbert Hoover, 1929-1933 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940), pp. 1-4.
6.
6. Harry P. Jeffrey, “Senator Fulbright and the Passage of the Fulbright Exchange Program” (Paper presented to special symposium commemorating the fortieth anniversary of the Fulbright exchange program, Fayetteville, AR, 28-30 Sept. 1986), pp. 5-6.
7.
7. Federal Records of World War II, vol. 1, Civilian Agencies (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 226-227.
8.
8. U.S., Congress, Committee on Expenditures in the Executive Departments, Surplus Property Disposal: Hearings, 79th Cong., 1st sess., 1946, pp. 1-40.
9.
9. Robert Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), p. 109. See also Fred Vinson to Harry Truman, 7/19/45, Box 4, Naval Aide File, Papers of Harry S. Truman, Truman Library, Independence, MO.
13. “Egghead from the Ozarks,”Saturday Evening Post, 2 May 1959.
14.
14. Ibid. See also “Well Adjusted Realist from Arkansas Takes Senate Seat of Hattie Caraway,” 14 Feb. 1945, Series 78, Box 31, Folder 4, Papers of J. William Fulbright, Special Collections, Mullins Library, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville (hereafter cited as Fulbright Papers); Haynes Johnson and Bernard M. Gwertzman, Fulbright: The Dissenter (New York: Curtis Books, 1966), pp. 17-64.
15.
15. Gaddis Smith, American Diplomacy during the Second World War, 1941-1945 (New York: John Wiley, 1966), pp. 71-74, 147-148, and 156.
16.
16. George Herbert Gunn, “The Continuing Friendship of James William Fulbright and Ronald Buchanan McCallum,”South Atlantic Quarterly, 83(4):417-419 (Autumn 1984).
17.
17. J. William Fulbright (hereafter JWF) to Edward J. Meeman, 19 Mar. 1945, BCN24, Folder 29, Fulbright Papers.
U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Banking and Currency , Anglo-American Financial Agreement: Hearings, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 1946.
31.
31. Committee on Banking and Currency, Anglo-American Financial Agreement.
32.
32. Warren F. Kimball, ed., Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, vol. 2, Alliance Forged (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 709.
33.
33. Ibid., p. 767.
34.
34. Memo on joint U.S.-U.K. relations in connection with approach to third countries, 10 Nov. 1944, Clayton-Thorp Papers, Truman Library.
35.
35. See Michael S. Sherry, Preparing for the Next War: American Plans for Postwar Defense, 1941-1945 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976), pp. 43-44.
36.
36. See James F. Schnabel, “The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy,” vol. 1:“1945-1947” (Manuscripts, Division of Modern Military Records, National Archives, Washington, DC, 1979), pp. 14-15.
37.
37. See Wesley T. Wooley, Jr., “The Quest for Permanent Peace—American Supranationalism, 1945-1947,”Historian, 35(1):18-27.
38.
38. Roosevelt agreed to the generous sums of $3.5 billion for munitions and $3.0 billion for nonmunitions. He also agreed to drop restrictions imposed in 1941 on British exports, restrictions that forbade the United Kingdom to export certain items as long as it was receiving lend-lease. When Roosevelt returned to Washington from the second Quebec Conference, he encountered a storm of protest from the secretary of state and others over the concessions he made to Churchill. Hull was furious that the Chief had given away so much without securing an ironclad commitment to liberalized trade policies. Others warned that Congress would not tolerate such generosity, especially in view of the fact that British exports could now compete freely with American merchandise. As a result, the administration pared down the amount of aid Britain was to receive to $2.7 billion for munitions and $2.0 billion for nonmunitions, and placed British exports back in harness. Richard P. Hedlund, “Congress and the British Loan of 1946” (Ph.D. diss., University of Kentucky, 1978), pp. 11-12.
39.
39. See Larry G. Gerber, “The Baruch Plan and the Origins of the Cold War,”Diplomatic History, 6(1):69-95 (Winter 1982).
40.
40. JWF to S. Sgt. Robert Hobson, 6 Nov. 1945, BCN24, Folder 27, Fulbright Papers; see also U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 1946, 92, pt. 3:3508.
41.
41. Randall B. Woods, “Conflict or Community? The United States and Argentina's Admission to the United Nations,”Pacific Historical Review, 56(3):361-386 (Aug. 1977).
42.
42. JWF to E. A. Matthews, 4 May 1945, BCN24, Folder 31, Fulbright Papers. See also U.S., Congress, Senate, Congressional Record, 79th Cong., 2d sess., 1946, 92, pt. 3:3508.
43.
43. Memo on the authority of the U.S. delegate to the Security Council, 1945, BCN24, Folder 36, Fulbright Papers.
44.
Foreign Relations of the United States, 1944 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office), 6:14-15.
45.
45. JWF to Charles A. Stick, 22 May 1945, BCN24, Folder 49, Fulbright Papers.
