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Abstract

Scarcely three years ago there was little scholarly or policy interest in the Shiite community of Lebanon. Long irrelevant politically within Lebanon, the Shiites languished under the firm control of traditional leaders who were not seriously challenged until the 1960s. By the mid-1960s, however, the Shiites were becoming politicized. The most important role in mobilizing them was played by a charismatic Iranian cleric of Lebanese descent, Sayyid Musa al-Sadr. His efforts were disrupted by the war of 1975-76, and it was not until 1978 that the movement he started enjoyed a revival, in part because of his mysterious disappearance. By the eve of the Israeli invasion of 1982, al-Sadr's organization, Amal, was the most important political grouping among the Shiites. However, since the events of 1982, the Amal movement—an essentially moderate formation—has been challenged by a number of more extreme organizations, including Hezbollah, which seeks an Islamic solution to the plight of the Shiites. As of mid-1985, Amal was arguably the leading Shiite organization, but the ravages of further frustration and radicalization may shift the balance of power.

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1. Israel's policies in south Lebanon are examined in several of my articles, including “Israel and South Lebanon,” American-Arab Affairs, no. 4, pp. 23-32 (Spring 1983); “Making Enemies in South Lebanon: Harakat Amal, the IDF, and South Lebanon,” Middle East Insight, 3(3):13-20 (Jan.-Feb. 1984); and “Occupational Risks and Planned Retirement: The Israeli With-drawal from Lebanon,” Middle East Insight, 4(1):14-18 (Mar.-Apr. 1985).

2. A more detailed discussion of the socio-economic status of the Shiites may be found in Augustus Richard Norton, “Harakat Amal (The Movement of Hope),” in Religion and Politics, ed. Myron J. Aronoff (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1984), pp. 105-131.

3. The seminal analysis of the zaim (plural: zuama) is found in Arnold Hottinger, “Zu'ama' in Historical Perspective,” in Politics in Lebanon, ed. Leonard Binder (New York: John Wiley, 1966), pp. 85-106.

4. Useful insights are found in Tarif Khalidi, “Shaykh Ahmad `Arif al-Zayn and al-`Irfan,” in Intellectual Life in the Arab East, 1890-1939, ed. Marwan R. Buheiry (Beirut: Center for Arab and Middle East Studies, 1981), pp. 110-124.

5. For a thoughtful collection of case studies and comparative treatments, see Nikki Keddie and Juan Cole , eds. Shi`ism and Social Protest (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, forthcoming).

6. See Augustus Richard Norton, “Harakat Amal and the Political Mobilization of the Shi'a of Lebanon” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1984), esp. pp. 19-63.

7. See Augustus Richard Norton , “Shi`ism and Social Protest in Lebanon,” in Shi`ism and Social Protest, ed. Keddie and Cole .

8. Private communication.

9. For an insightful discussion of the appropriation of Shiite ritual for political purposes in south Lebanon, see Elizabeth Picard , “From `Community-Class' to `Patriotic Struggle' ” (Paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Middle East Studies Association, San Francisco, Dec. 1984).

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10. See Karim Pakradouni , La paix manquée [The unfound peace] (in French) (Beirut: Editions FMA, 1983), pp. 105-107.

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11. I have analyzed the critical events of 1978-79 in much greater detail elsewhere, including Edward Azar et al. , The Emergence of a New Lebanon: Fantasy or Reality? (New York: Praeger, 1984).

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12. Fouad Ajami , “Lebanon and Its Inheritors,” Foreign Affairs, 63(4):783 (Spring 1985).

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13. See Augustus Richard Norton , “Lebanon's Shiites,” New York Times, 16 Apr. 1982; and idem , “Militant Protest and Political Violence under the Banner of Islam,” Armed Forces and Society, 9(1):14-16 (Fall 1982).

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14. See Augustus Richard Norton , “The Political Mood in Lebanon,” Middle East Insight, 2(5):9-13 (Jan.-Feb. 1983).

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15. See Ajami , “Lebanon and Its Inheritors,” p. 789.

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16. Nass al-risala al-mattuha allati wajjuhaha hizb allah ila al-mustadafin fi lubnan wa al-alam [Text of the open message that the Party of God sends to the oppressed in Lebanon and the world] (in Arabic) (distributed in Lebanon in Feb. 1985), p. 9.

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17. See Augustus Richard Norton , “Political Violence and Shi'a Factionalism in Lebanon,” Middle East Insight, 3(2):9-16.-Oct. 1983).

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18. A fascinating and lengthy interview with Fadlallah is found in Middle East Insight, 4(2):10-19 (June-July 1985).

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Wright's book is based in part on rare interviews with Shiite activists and principals. The reader desiring a shorter treatment is invited to consult Augustus Richard Norton, Political and Religious Extremism in the Middle East, Middle East Institute Executive Report, no. 7 (Washington, DC: Middle East Institute, 1985).

Changing Actors and Leadership among the Shiites of Lebanon

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