DNA segments can be used to distinguish among individuals and populations, but such differentiation of the population is not consistent with any known system of racial classification. In this article we elaborate on this core idea and discuss how it should influence genetic and genomic research on health and prisons in the United States. For studies involving racial classification and inequality, we provide methodological recommendations for addressing both the structure of race and gene expression of individuals and groups.
AkinbamiLara J.LiuXiangPastorPatricia N.ReubenCynthia A.2011. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children aged 5–17 years in the United States, 1998–2009. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief, no 70. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
2.
AlexanderMichelle. 2010. The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York, NY: New Press.
3.
BaptistEdward E.2014. The half has never been told: Slavery and the making of American capitalism. New York: Basic Books.
4.
BashiVilnaMcDanielAntonio (Tukufu Zuberi). 1997. A theory of immigration and racial stratification. Journal of Black Studies27 (5): 668–82.
5.
BeckerHoward S.1963. Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. New York, NY: Free Press.
6.
BlackmonDavid. 2009. Slavery by another name: The re-enslavement of black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
7.
BlauJudith. 2003. Race in the schools: Perpetuating white dominance?Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
8.
Bonilla-SilvaEduardo. 1996. Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review62 (3): 465–80.
9.
BoxJoan Fisher. 1978. R.A. Fisher: The life of a scientist. New York: Wiley.
10.
BrimmerAndrew F.1997. Preamble: Blacks in the American economy: Summary of selected research. In A different vision: African American economic thought, ed. BostonT.New York, NY: Routledge.
11.
BrodyGene H.LeiMan-KitChenEdithMillerGregory E.2014. Neighborhood poverty and allostatic load in African American Youth. Pediatrics134 (5): e1362–68.
12.
BrodyGene H.YuTianyiChenEdithMillerGregory E.KoganSteven M.BeachSteven R. H.2013. Is resilience only skin deep? Rural African Americans’ socioeconomic status–related risk and competence in preadolescence and psychological adjustment and allostatic load at age 19. Psychological Science24 (7): 1285–93.
13.
ChenEdithMillerGregory E.KoborMichael S.ColeSteve W.2011. Maternal warmth buffers the effects of low early-life socioeconomic status on pro-inflammatory signaling in adulthood. Molecular Psychiatry16 (7): 729–37.
14.
ClearTodd. 2007. Imprisoning communities: How mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
15.
ConleyD.1999. Being black, living in the red: Race, wealth, and social policy in America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
16.
CullenFrancis T.AgnewRobert. 2003. Criminological theory past to present: Essential readings. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company.
17.
DavenportCharles B.1911. Heredity in relation to eugenics. New York, NY: H. Holt and Company.
18.
de GobineauArthur Comte. 1853/1915. Essay on the inequality of human races. New York, NY: G. P. Putnams’ Sons.
19.
DonzigerSteven R.1996. The real war on crime: The report of the National Criminal Justice Commission. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
20.
DrakeSt. Clare. 1987/1991. Black folks here and there: An essay in history and anthropology. Los Angeles, CA: University of California, Center for Afro American Studies.
21.
Du BoisW. E. B. 1899/1996. The Philadelphia Negro: A social study. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
22.
Du BoisW. E. B. 1901. The spawn of slavery: The convict-lease system in the South. Missionary Review of the World14:737–45.
23.
Du BoisW. E. B. 1935a. Black reconstruction in America. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc.
24.
Du BoisW. E. B. 1935b. Black reconstruction in America, 1860–1880: An essay toward a history of the part which black folk played in the attempt to reconstruct democracy in America. New York, NY: Athenum.
25.
DusterTroy. 1997. Pattern, purpose and race in the drug war. In Crack in America: Demon drugs and social justice, eds. ReinarmanCraigLevineHarry G.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
26.
DusterTroy. 2003. Backdoor to eugenics. New York, NY: Routledge.
27.
EdgeworthFrancis Y.1885. Methods of statistics. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 181–217.
28.
EdgeworthFrancis Y.1889. “On the Application of Mathematics to Political Economy.” The Address of the President of Section F—Economic Science and Statistics—of the British Association, at the Fifty-Ninth Meeting, Held at Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, in September, 1889. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society52 (4): 538–576.
29.
EmirbayerMustafa. 1997. Manifesto for a relational sociology. American Sociological Review103 (2): 281–317.
30.
FarleyReynoldsAllenWalter R.1987. The color line and the quality of life in America. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
31.
FisherRonald A.1925. Statistical methods for research workers. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
32.
FisherRonald A.1930. The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
33.
FisherRonald A.1935. The design of experiments. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
34.
GaltonFrancis. 1874. English men of science: Their nature and nurture. London: MacMillan & Co.
GaltonFrancis. 1892/1972. Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Honolulu, HI: University Press of the Pacific.
37.
GómezLaura E.2010. Understanding law and race as mutually constitutive: An invitation to explore an emerging field. Annual Review of Law and Social Science6:487–505.
38.
GottfredsonMichael R.HirschiTravis. 1990. A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
39.
GouldStephen Jay. 1996. The mismeasure of man. New York, NY: Norton.
40.
GravesJoseph L.Jr.2001. The emperor’s new clothes: Biological theories of race at the millennium. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
41.
GreenAlexander R.CarneyDana R.PallinDaniel J.NgoLong H.RaymondKristal L.LezzoniLisa I.BanajiMahzarin R.2007. Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine22 (9): 1231–38.
42.
GrodskyEricPagerDevah. 2001. The structure of disadvantage: Individual and occupational determinants of the black-white wage gap. American Sociological Review66 (4): 542–67.
43.
GuoGuangFuYilanLeeHedwigCaiTianjiHarrisKathleen MullanLiYi. 2014. Genetic bio-ancestry and social construction of racial classification in social surveys in the contemporary United States. Demography51 (1): 141–72.
44.
GuoGuangRoettgerMichael E.CairTianji. 2008. The integration of genetic propensities into social-control models of delinquency and violence among male youths. American Sociological Review73 (4): 543–68.
45.
Haney-LópezIan F.1996. White by law: The legal construction of race. New York, NY: New York University Press.
46.
HannafordIvan. 1996. Race: The history of an idea in the West. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
47.
HaywardMark D.HeronMelonie. 1999. Racial inequality in active life among adult Americans. Demography36 (1): 77–92.
48.
HenryC. Michael. 1997. A framework for alleviation of inner city poverty. In A different vision: Race and public policy, vol. 2, ed. BostonThomas D.New York, NY: Routledge.
49.
HernsteinRichard J.MurrayCharles. 1996. The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York, NY: Free Press.
50.
HirschiTravis. 1969. Causes of delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
51.
HoffmanFrederick L.1896. Race traits and tendencies of the American Negro. New York, NY: Macmillan.
52.
HoodRogerSparksRichard. 1970. Key issues in criminology. New York, NY: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
53.
IgnatievNoel. 1995. How the Irish became white. New York, NY: Routledge.
54.
InkoriJoseph E.1992. African in world history: The export slave trade from Africa and the emergence of the Atlantic economic order. In General history of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, general history of Africa, ed. OgotB.A., 74–112. Paris: University of California and UNESCO.
55.
International Centre for Prison Studies. 2014. Entire world - Prison population rates per 100,000 of the national population. Available from http://www.prisonstudies.org.
56.
JensenArthur R.1998. The g factor: The science of mental ability. New York, NY: Praeger.
57.
KatznelsonIra. 2005. When affirmative action was white: An untold history of racial inequality in twentieth-century America. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
58.
KevlesD. J.1985. In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
59.
KuzawaChristopher W.SweetElizabeth. 2009. Epigenetics and the embodiment of race: Developmental origins of U.S. racial disparities in cardiovascular health. American Journal of Human Biology21:2–15.
60.
LewontinRichard. 2000. The triple helix: Gene, organism, and environment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
61.
LiebersonStanley. 1980. A piece of the pie: Blacks and white immigrants since 1880. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
62.
LiebersonStanley. 1985. Making it count: The improvement of social research and theory. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
63.
LippmanMatthew. 2014. Law and society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
64.
LombrosoCesare. 1876/1911. Criminal man: According to the classification of Cesare Lombroso. New York, NY: GP Putnam’s Sons.
65.
MauerMarcKingRyan. 2004. Schools and prisons: Fifty years after Brown v. Board of Education. Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project.
66.
McCallLeslie. 2001. Sources of racial wage inequality in metropolitan labor markets: Racial, ethnic, and gender differences. American Sociological Review66 (4): 520–41.
67.
McEwenBruce S.SeemanTeresa. 1999. Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress: Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences896 (1): 30–47.
68.
MeierAugustRudwickElliot. 1976. From plantation to ghetto. New York, NY: Hill and Wang.
69.
MillerGregory E.BrodyGene H.YuTianyiChenEdith. 2014. A family-oriented psychosocial intervention reduces inflammation in low-SES African American youth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences111 (31): 11287–92.
70.
MillerGregory E.ChenEdith. 2013. The biological residue of childhood poverty. Child Development Perspectives7 (2): 67–73.
71.
MillsCharles. 1997. The racial contract. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
72.
MorningAnn. 2011. The nature of race: How scientists think and teach about human difference. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
73.
MorningAnn. 2014. And you thought we had moved beyond all that: Biological race returns to the social sciences. Guest editorial. Ethnic and Racial Studies37 (10): 1676–85.
74.
MyrdalGunnar. 1944. An American dilemma: The Negro problem and modern democracy. New York, NY: Harper.
75.
OliverMelvinShapiroThomas. 1995. Black wealth, white wealth: A new perspective on racial inequality. New York, NY: Routledge.
76.
OmiMichaelWinantHoward. 1994. Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd ed.New York, NY: Routledge.
77.
OsarioPilarDusterTroy. 2005. Race and genetics: Controversies in biomedical, behavioral, and forensic sciences. American Psychologist60 (1): 115–28.
78.
OshinskyDavid M.1997. Worse than slavery: Parchman Farm and the ordeal of Jim Crow justice. New York, NY: Free Press.
79.
PeffleyMarkHurwitzJon. 2002. The racial components of “race-neutral” crime policy attitudes. Political Psychology23 (1): 59–75.
80.
PennerAndrewSapersteinAliya. 2008. How social status shapes race. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences105 (50): 19628–30.
81.
RaineAdrain. 1993. The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
82.
ReardonJenny. 2004. Race to the finish: Identity and governance in an age of genomics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
83.
ReskinBarbara. 2003. 2002 presidential address: Including mechanisms in our models of ascriptive inequality. American Sociological Review68 (1): 1–21.
84.
RigbyPeter. 1996. African images: Racism and the end of anthropology. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic.
85.
RobertsDorothy. 2011. Fatal invention: How science, politics and big business re-create race in the twenty-first century. New York, NY: New Press.
86.
RoedigerDavid R.1991. The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. London: Verso.
87.
RogersRichard G.1992. Living and dying in the U.S.A.: Sociodemographic determinants of death among blacks and whites. Demography29 (2): 278–303.
88.
RogersRichard G.HummerRobert A.NamCharles B.2000. Living and dying in the USA: Behavioral, health, and social differentials of adult mortality. New York, NY: Academic Press.
89.
RoseNikolas. 2000. The biology of culpability: Pathological identity and crime control in a biological culture. Theoretical Criminology4 (1): 5–34.
90.
RoysterDeirdre A.2003. Race and the invisible hand: How white networks exclude black men from blue-collar jobs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
91.
SapersteinAliya. 2006. Double-checking the race box: Examining inconsistency between survey measures of observed and self-reported race. Social Forces85 (1): 57–74.
92.
SchuesslerKarl F.CresseyDonald R.1950. Personality characteristics of criminals. American Journal of Sociology (1950): 476–84.
93.
ShockleyWilliam. 1992. Shockley on eugenics and race, ed. PearsonRoger. Washington, DC: Scott Townsend.
94.
SmedleyAudreySmedleyBrian D.2005. Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real. American Psychologist60 (1): 16–26.
95.
SpencerHerbert. 1857. Progress: Its law and causes. The Westminster Review67:445–85.
96.
StetlerCinnamonChenEdithMillerGregory E.2006. Written disclosure of experiences with racial discrimination and antibody response to an influenza vaccine. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine13 (1): 60–68.
97.
StewartQuincy Thomas. 2008a. Chasing the race effect: An analysis of traditional quantitative research on race in sociology. In Racism in post-race America: New theories, new directions, ed. GallagherC., 561–80. Chapel Hill, NC: Social Forces.
98.
StewartQuincy Thomas. 2008b. Swimming upstream: Theory and quantitative methodology in race research. In White logic, white methods: Race, epistemology and the social sciences, eds. ZuberiTukufuBonilla-SilvaEduardo. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
99.
StewartQuincy Thomas. 2009. The shape of inequality: Racial disparities in age specific mortality. Biodemography and Social Biology54 (2): 152–82.
100.
StewartQuincy ThomasDixonJeffrey C.2010. Is it race, immigrant status or both? An analysis of wage disparities among men in the United States. International Migration Review44 (1): 173–201.
101.
StewartQuincy ThomasRayRashawn J.2007. Hurricane Katrina and the race flood: Interactive lessons for quantitative research on race. Race, Gender & Class14 (1–2): 38–59.
102.
StiglerStephen M.1986. The history of statistics: The measurement of uncertainty before 1900. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
103.
TravisJeremyWesternBruceRedburnSteve. 2014. The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
104.
TonryMichael. 1996. Sentencing matters. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
105.
U.S. Department of Justice. 2014. Crime in the United States, 2012. Uniform Crime Report, Table 25. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
106.
WacquantLoic. 2010. From slavery to mass incarceration: Rethinking the race question in the US. In Why punish? How much? ed. TonryMichael, 387–402. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
107.
WestCandaceFenstermakerSarah. 1995. Doing difference. Gender and Society9 (1): 8–37.
108.
WilliamsDavid. 1999. Race, socioeconomic status, and health: The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences896:173–88.
109.
WilliamsDavid R.JacksonPamela Braboy. 2005. Social sources of racial disparities in health: Policies in societal domains, fare removed from traditional health policy, can have decisive consequences for health. Health Affairs24 (2): 325–34.
110.
WilliamsEric. 1944. Capitalism & slavery. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
111.
WrightJohn P.BeaverKevin M.2005. Do parents matter in creating self-control in their children? A genetically informed test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self control. Criminology43 (4): 1169–1202.
112.
YuleG. Udney. 1897. On the theory of correlation. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 60 (4): 812–854.
113.
ZuberiTukufu. 2001a. The population dynamics of the changing color line in the USA. In Problem of the century: Racial stratification in the United States at century’s end, eds. AndersonElijahMasseyDouglas. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
114.
ZuberiTukufu. 2001b. Thicker than blood: How racial statistics lie. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
115.
ZuberiTukufu. 2015. African independence: How Africa shapes the world. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
116.
ZuberiTukufuBonilla-SilvaEduardo, eds. 2008. White logic, white methods: Race, epistemology and the social sciences. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
