In this article, we examine the concept of humility among chief executive officers (CEOs) and the process through which it is connected to integration in the top management team (TMT) and middle managers’ responses. We develop and validate a comprehensive measure of humility using multiple samples and then test a multilevel model of how CEOs’ humility links to the processes of top and middle managers. Our methodology involves survey data gathered twice from 328 TMT members and 645 middle managers in 63 private companies in China. We find CEO humility to be positively associated with empowering leadership behaviors, which in turn correlates with TMT integration. TMT integration then positively relates to middle managers’ perception of having an empowering organizational climate, which is then associated with their work engagement, affective commitment, and job performance. Findings confirm our hypotheses based on social information processing theory: humble CEOs connect to top and middle managers through collective perceptions of empowerment at both levels. Qualitative data from interviews with 51 CEOs provide additional insight into the meaning of humility among CEOs and differences between those with high and low humility.
AhearneM.MathieuJ.RappA.2005 “To empower or not to empower your sales force? An empirical examination of the influence of leadership empowerment behavior on customer satisfaction and performance.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 945–955.
2.
AkaikeH.1987 “Factor analysis and AIC.” Psychometrika, 52: 317–332.
3.
AllportG. W.1961Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
4.
AlonI.ChildJ.LiS.McIntyreJ. R.2011 “Globalization of Chinese firms: Theoretical universalism or particularism.” Management and Organization Review, 7: 191–200.
5.
AmasonA. C.SapienzaH. J.1997 “The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conflict.” Journal of Management, 23: 495–516.
6.
AmesD. R.RoseP.AndersonC. P.2006 “The NPI-16 as a short measure of narcissism.” Journal of Research in Personality, 40: 440–450.
7.
AnconaD.MaloneT. W.OrlikowskiW. J.SengeP. M.2007 “In praise of the incomplete leader.” Harvard Business Review, 85 (2): 92–103.
8.
AndersonJ. C.GerbingD. W.1988 “Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach.” Psychological Bulletin, 103: 411–423.
9.
AshtonM. C.LeeK.2005 “Honesty-humility, the Big Five, and the Five-factor Model.” Journal of Personality, 73: 1321–1353.
BassB. M.AvolioB. J.1995MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire for Research: Permission Set. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden.
12.
BaumeisterR. F.1998 “The self.” In GilbertD.FiskeS. T.LindzeyG. (eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology: 680–740. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
13.
BergerP. L.LuckmannT.1966The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books.
14.
BlanchardK. H.CarlosJ. P.RandolphW. A.1995The Empowerment Barometer and Action Plan. Escondido, CA: Blanchard Training and Development.
15.
BlauP. M.1964Power and Exchange in Social Life. New York: Wiley.
16.
BlieseP. D.2000 “Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis.” In KleinK. J.KozlowskiS. W. J. (eds.), Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions: 349–381. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17.
BlighM. C.RobinsonJ. L.2010 “Was Gandhi ‘charismatic’? Exploring the rhetorical leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.” Leadership Quarterly, 21: 844–855.
18.
BojeD. M.1991 “The storytelling organization: A study of story performance in an office-supply firm.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 36: 106–126.
19.
BollenK. A.1989Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: Wiley.
20.
BonoJ. E.JudgeT. A.2003 “Self-concordance at work: Toward understanding the motivational effects of transformational leaders.” Academy of Management Journal, 46: 554–571.
21.
BrownM. E.TrevinoL. K.2006 “Socialized charismatic leadership, values congruence, and deviance in work groups.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 954–962.
22.
CannellaA. A.HolcombT. R.2005 “A multilevel analysis of the upper-echelon model.” In DansereauA.YammarinoF. J. (eds.), Research in Multi-level Issues: Multi-level Issues in Strategy and Methods: 197–237. Oxford: Elsevier.
23.
CarmeliA.SchaubroeckJ.2006 “Top management team behavioral integration, decision quality, and organizational decline.” Leadership Quarterly, 17: 441–453.
24.
CarmeliA.SchaubroeckJ.TishlerA.2011 “How CEO empowering leadership shapes top management team processes: Implications for firm performance.” Leadership Quarterly, 22: 399–411.
25.
CaspiA.RobertsB. W.ShinerR. L.2005 “Personality development: Stability and change.” Annual Review of Psychology, 56: 453–484.
26.
ChatterjeeA.HambrickD. C.2007 “It’s all about me: Narcissistic chief executive officers and their effects on company strategy and performance.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 52: 351–386.
27.
ChenS. X.BondM. H.ChanB.TangD.-H.BuchtelE. E.2009 “Behavioral manifestations of modesty.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40: 603–626.
28.
ChenZ. G.LamW.ZhongJ. A.2007 “Leader-member exchange and member performance: A new look at individual-level negative feedback-seeking behavior and team-level empowerment climate.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 202–212.
29.
ChenZ. X.FrancescoA. M.2003 “The relationship between the three components of commitment and employee performance in China.” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62: 490–510.
30.
CollinsJ. C.2001Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap . . . and Others Don’t. New York: Jim Collins.
31.
DavisD. E.HookJ. N.WorthingtonE. L.Van TongerenD. R.GartnerA. L.JenningsD. J.EmmonsR. A.2011 “Relational humility: Conceptualizing and measuring humility as a personality judgment.” Journal of Personality Assessment, 93: 225–234.
32.
DavisD. E.WorthingtonE. L.HookJ. N.2010 “Humility: Review of measurement strategies and conceptualization as personality judgment.” Journal of Positive Psychology, 5: 243–252.
33.
DeanJ. W.SharfmanM. P.1996 “Does decision process matter? A study of strategic decision-making effectiveness.” Academy of Management Journal, 39: 368–392.
34.
DeRueD. S.NahrgangJ. D.WellmanN.HumphreyS. E.2011 “Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: An integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity.” Personnel Psychology, 64: 7–52.
35.
DessG. G.1987 “Consensus on strategy formulation and organizational performance: Competitors in a fragmented industry.” Strategic Management Journal, 8: 259–277.
36.
DruckerP. F.1992Managing for the Future: The 1990s and Beyond. New York: Truman Talley/Dutton.
37.
EisenhardtK. M.BourgeoisL. J.1988 “Politics of strategic decision making in high-velocity environments: Toward a midrange theory.” Academy of Management Journal, 31: 737–770.
38.
ExlineJ. J.GeyerA. L.2004 “Perceptions of humility: A preliminary study.” Self and Identity, 3: 95–114.
39.
FinkelsteinS.HambrickD. C.CannellaA. A.2009Strategic Leadership: Theory and Research on Executives, Top Management Teams, and Boards. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40.
FryL. W.2003 “Toward a theory of spiritual leadership.” Leadership Quarterly, 14: 693–727.
41.
FuP. P.TsuiA. S.LiuJ.LiL.2010 “Pursuit of whose happiness? Executive leaders’ transformational behaviors and personal values.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 55: 222–254.
42.
GalvinB. M.WaldmanD. A.BalthazardP.2010 “Visionary communication qualities as mediators of the relationship between narcissism and attributions of leader charisma.” Personnel Psychology, 63: 509–537.
43.
GerbingD. W.HamiltonJ. G.1996 “Viability of exploratory factor analysis as a precursor to confirmatory factor analysis.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 3: 62–72.
44.
Gomez-MejiaL. R.Larraza-KintanaM.MakriM.2003 “The determinants of executive compensation in family-controlled public corporations.” Academy of Management Journal, 46: 226–237.
45.
GrenbergJ.2005Kant and the Ethics of Humility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
46.
GriffinM. A.MathieuJ. E.1997 “Modeling organizational processes across hierarchical levels: Climate, leadership, and group process in work groups.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18: 731–744.
47.
GuillénM.GonzálezT. F.2001 “The ethical dimension of managerial leadership: Two illustrative case studies in TQM.” Journal of Business Ethics, 34: 175–189.
48.
GulatiR.1995 “Does familiarity breed trust: The implications of repeated ties for contractual choice in alliances.” Academy of Management Journal, 38: 85–112.
49.
GuniaB. C.WangL.HuangL.WangJ.MurnighanJ. K.2012 “Contemplation and conversation: Subtle influences on moral decision making.” Academy of Management Journal, 55: 13–33.
50.
HackettR. D.WangG.2012 “Virtues and leadership: An integrating conceptual framework founded in Aristotelian and Confucian perspectives on virtues.” Management Decision, 50: 868–899.
51.
HambrickD. C.1994 “Top management groups: A conceptual integration and reconsideration of the ‘team’ label.” In CummingsL. L.StawB. M. (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 16: 171–213. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
52.
HambrickD.2005 “Upper echelon theory: Origins, twists and turns, and lessons learned.” In SmithK. G.HittM. A. (eds.), Great Minds in Management: The Process of Theory Development: 109–127. New York: Oxford University Press.
53.
HambrickD. C.FinkelsteinS.1987 “Managerial discretion: A bridge between polar views of organizational outcomes.” In CummingsL. L.StawB. M. (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 9: 369–406. Greenwich: JAI Press.
54.
HarterJ. K.SchmidtF. L.HayesT. L.2002 “Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 268–279.
55.
HayesM.ComerM.2010Start with Humility: Lessons from America’s Quiet CEOs on How to Build Trust and Inspire Followers. Westfield, IN: Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership.
56.
HaywardM. L. A.HambrickD. C.1997 “Explaining the premiums paid for large acquisitions: Evidence of CEO hubris.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 42: 103–127.
57.
HinkinT. R.1998 “A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires.” Organizational Research Methods, 1: 104–121.
58.
HouseR. J.AdityaR. N.1997 “The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis?” Journal of Management, 23: 409–473.
59.
HouseR. J.HangesP. J.JavidanM.DorfmanP. W.GuptaV.2004Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
60.
HowellJ. M.ShamirB.2005 “The role of followers in the charismatic leadership process: Relationships and their consequences.” Academy of Management Review, 30: 96–112.
61.
HuL.BentlerP. M.1999 “Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives.” Structural Equation Modeling, 6: 1–55.
62.
JamesL. R.DemareeR. G.WolfG.1984 “Estimating within: Group interrater reliability with and without response bias.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 69: 85–98.
63.
JiaM.ZhangZ.2013 “The CEO’s representation of demands and the corporation’s response to external pressures: Do politically affiliated firms donate more?” Management and Organization Review, 9: 87–114.
64.
JudgeT. A.ErezA.BonoJ. E.ThoresenC. J.2003 “The core self-evaluations scale: Development of a measure.” Personnel Psychology, 56: 303–331.
65.
KinickiA. J.L. JacobsonK. J.GalvinB. M.PrussiaG. E.2011 “A multilevel systems model of leadership.” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 18: 133–149.
66.
KoenigA. M.EaglyA. H.MitchellA. A.RistikariT.2011 “Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms.” Psychological Bulletin, 137: 616–642.
67.
KozlowskiS. W. J.KleinK. J.2000 “A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emergent processes.” In KleinK. J.KozlowskiS. W. J. (eds.), Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions: 3–90. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
68.
LanajK.HollenbeckJ. R.IlgenD. R.BarnesC. M.HarmonS. S.2013 “The double-edged sword of decentralized planning in multiteam systems.” Academy of Management Journal, 56: 735–757.
69.
LandisJ. R.KochG. G.1977 “The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data.” Biometrics, 33: 159–174.
70.
LeeK.AshtonM. C.2004 “Psychometric properties of the HEXACO personality inventory.” Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39: 329–358.
71.
LiJ.TangY. I.2010 “CEO hubris and firm risk taking in China: The moderating role of managerial discretion.” Academy of Management Journal, 53: 45–68.
72.
LingY.SimsekZ.LubatkinM. H.VeigaJ. F.2008 “Transformational leadership’s role in promoting corporate entrepreneurship: Examining the CEO-TMT interface.” Academy of Management Journal, 51: 557–576.
73.
LordR. G.De VaderC. L.AlligerG. M.1986 “A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 71: 402–410.
74.
MacKinnonD. P.LockwoodC. M.HoffmanJ. M.WestS. G.SheetsV.2002 “A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects.” Psychological Methods, 7: 83–104.
75.
MalmendierU.TateG.2005 “CEO overconfidence and corporate investment.” Journal of Finance, 60: 2661–2700.
76.
MelwaniS.MuellerJ. S.OverbeckJ. R.2012 “Looking down: The influence of contempt and compassion on emergent leadership categorizations.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 97: 1171–1185.
77.
MeyerJ. P.AllenN. J.SmithC. A.1993 “Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a 3-component conceptualization.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 78: 538–551.
78.
MorrisJ. A.BrotheridgeC. M.UrbanskiJ. C.2005 “Bringing humility to leadership: Antecedents and consequences of leader humility.” Human Relations, 58: 1323–1350.
79.
MuthenL. K.MuthenB. O.2007Mplus: Statistical Analysis with Latent Variables: User’s Guide. Los Angeles: Muthen & Muthen.
80.
NewmanJ.1982 “Humility and self-realization.” Journal of Value Inquiry, 16: 275–285.
81.
NunnallyJ. C.1978Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
82.
OstroffC.KinickiA. J.ClarkM. A.2002 “Substantive and operational issues of response bias across levels of analysis: An example of climate-satisfaction relationships.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 355–368.
83.
OwensB.2009 “Humility in organizational leadership.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle.
84.
OwensB.HekmanD.2012 “Modeling how to grow: An inductive examination of humble leader behaviors, contingencies, and outcomes.” Academy of Management Journal, 55: 787–818.
85.
OwensB. P.JohnsonM. D.MitchellT. R.2013 “Expressed humility in organizations: Implications for performance, teams, and leadership.” Organization Science, 24: 1517–1538.
86.
PanY.RowneyJ. A.PetersonM. F.2012 “The structure of Chinese cultural traditions: An empirical study of business employees in China.” Management and Organization Review, 8: 77–95.
87.
PearceC. L.EnsleyM. D.2004 “A reciprocal and longitudinal investigation of the innovation process: The central role of shared vision in product and process innovation teams (PPITs).” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25: 259–278.
88.
PetersonC.SeligmanM. E. P.2004Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. New York: Oxford University Press.
89.
PlessN. M.MaakT.WaldmanD. A.2012 “Different approaches toward doing the right thing: Mapping the responsibility orientations of leaders.” Academy of Management Perspectives, 26: 51–65.
90.
PodsakoffP. M.MacKenzieS. B.LeeJ. Y.PodsakoffN. P.2003 “Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 879–903.
91.
RaesA. M. L.HeijltjesM. G.GlunkU.RoeR. A.2011 “The interface of the top management team and middle managers: A process model.” Academy of Management Review, 36: 102–126.
92.
RobersonQ. M.ColquittJ. A.2005 “Shared and configural justice: A social network model of justice in teams.” Academy of Management Review, 30: 595–607.
93.
RowattW. C.PowersC.TarghettaV.ComerJ.KennedyS.LabouffJ.2006 “Development and initial validation of an implicit measure of humility relative to arrogance.” Journal of Positive Psychology, 1: 198–211.
94.
RynesS. L.BartunekJ. M.DuttonJ. E.MargolisJ. D.2012 “Care and compassion through an organizational lens: Opening up new possibilities.” Academy of Management Review, 37: 503–523.
95.
SalancikG. R.PfefferJ.1978 “A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 23: 224–253.
96.
SchaufeliW. B.BakkerA. B.SalanovaM.2006 “The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66: 701–716.
97.
ScheinE. H.2010Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
98.
SchneiderB.ReichersA. E.1983 “On the etiology of climates.” Personnel Psychology, 36: 19–39.
99.
SeibertS. E.SilverS. R.RandolphW. A.2004 “Taking empowerment to the next level: A multiple-level model of empowerment, performance, and satisfaction.” Academy of Management Journal, 47: 332–349.
100.
SiS. X.CullenJ. B.1998 “Response categories and potential cultural bias: Effects of an explicit middle point in cross-cultural surveys.” International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 6: 218–230.
101.
SimsekZ.VeigaJ. F.LubatkinM. H.DinoR. N.2005 “Modeling the multilevel determinants of top management team behavioral integration.” Academy of Management Journal, 48: 69–84.
102.
SmircichL.MorganG.1982 “Leadership: The management of meaning.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 18: 257–273.
103.
SmithK. G.SmithK. A.OlianJ. D.SimsH. P.ObannonP.ScullyJ. A.1994 “Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 39: 412–438.
104.
SpreitzerG. M.1995 “Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation.” Academy of Management Journal, 38: 1442–1465.
105.
SpreitzerG. M.2008 “Taking stock: A review of more than twenty years of research on empowerment at work.” In BarlingJ.CooperC. (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Behavior: 54–72. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
106.
Sully de LuqueM.WashburnN. T.WaldmanD. A.HouseR. J.2008 “Unrequited profit: How stakeholder and economic values relate to subordinates’ perceptions of leadership and firm performance.” Administrative Science Quarterly, 53: 626–654.
107.
SunS.2011 “Meta-analysis of Cohen’s kappa.” Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology, 11: 145–163.
108.
TangneyJ. P.2002 “Humility.” In SnyderC. R. (ed.), Handbook of Positive Psychology: 411–419. New York: Oxford University Press.
109.
TempletonJ. M.1997Worldwide Laws of Life. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press.
110.
TiceD. M.ButlerJ. L.MuravenM. B.StillwellA. M.1995 “When modesty prevails: Differential favorability of self-presentation to friends and strangers.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 1120–1138.
111.
TsaiW. P.GhoshalS.1998 “Social capital and value creation: The role of intrafirm networks.” Academy of Management Journal, 41: 464–476.
112.
TsuiA. S.2013 “On compassionate scholarship: Why should we care?” Academy of Management Review, 38: 167–181.
113.
TsuiA. S.JiaL. D.2013 “Calling for humanistic scholarship in China.” Management and Organization Review, 9: 1–15.
114.
TsuiA. S.LauC.-M.2002The Management of Enterprises in the People’s Republic of China. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic.
115.
TsuiA. S.PearceJ. L.PorterL. W.TripoliA. M.1997 “Alternative approaches to the employee-organization relationship: Does investment in employees pay off?” Academy of Management Journal, 40: 1089–1121.
116.
TsuiA. S.WangH.XinK.ZhangL.FuP. P.2004 “Let a thousand flowers bloom: Variation of leadership styles among Chinese CEOs.” Organizational Dynamics, 33: 5–20.
117.
van DierendonckD.2011 “Servant leadership: A review and synthesis.” Journal of Management, 37: 1228–1261.
118.
van DierendonckD.NuijtenI.2011 “The servant leadership survey: Development and validation of a multidimensional measure.” Journal of Business and Psychology, 26: 249–267.
119.
VandewalleD.1997 “Development and validation of a work domain goal orientation instrument.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57: 995–1015.
120.
VazireS.2010 “Who knows what about a person? The self-other knowledge asymmetry (SOKA) model.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98: 281–300.
121.
VeraD.Rodriguez-LopezA.2004 “Strategic virtues: Humility as a source of competitive advantage.” Organizational Dynamics, 33: 393–408.
122.
WaldmanD. A.YammarinoF. J.1999 “CEO charismatic leadership: Levels-of-management and levels-of-analysis effects.” Academy of Management Review, 24: 266–285.
123.
WallaceJ. C.JohnsonP. D.MatheK.PaulJ.2011 “Structural and psychological empowerment climates, performance, and the moderating role of shared felt accountability: A managerial perspective.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 96: 840–850.
124.
WalshJ. P.WeberK.MargolisJ. D.2003 “Social issues and management: Our lost cause found.” Journal of Management, 29: 859–881.
125.
WeickK. E.2001 “Leadership as the legitimation of doubt.” In BennisW.SpreitzerG. M.CummingsT. G. (eds.), The Future of Leadership: Today’s Top Leadership Thinkers Speak to Tomorrow’s Leaders: 91–102. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
126.
WeissH. M.KnightP. A.1980 “The utility of humility: Self-esteem, information search, and problem-solving efficiency.” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25: 216–223.
127.
WhetstoneM. R.OkunM. A.CialdiniR. B.1992 “The modest responding scale.” Paper presented at the Convention of the American Psychological Society, San Diego, CA.
128.
WhitenerE. M.BrodtS. E.KorsgaardM. A.WernerJ. M.1998 “Managers as initiators of trust: An exchange relationship framework for understanding managerial trustworthy behavior.” Academy of Management Review, 23: 513–530.
129.
WilliamsL. J.CoteJ. A.BuckleyM. R.1989 “Lack of method variance in self-reported affect and perceptions at work: Reality or artifact.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 462–468.
130.
WilliamsL. J.VandenbergR. J.EdwardsJ. R.2009 “Structural equation modeling in management research: A guide for improved analysis.” Academy of Management Annals, 3: 543–604.
131.
WongE. M.OrmistonM. E.TetlockP. E.2011 “The effects of top management team integrative complexity and decentralized decision making on corporate social performance.” Academy of Management Journal, 54: 1207–1228.
132.
YammarinoF. J.1994 “Indirect leadership: Transformational leadership at a distance.” In BassB. M.AvolioB. J. (eds.), Improving Organizational Effectiveness through Transformational Leadership: 26–47. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
ZhangX. M.BartolK. M.2010 “Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: The influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement.” Academy of Management Journal, 53: 107–128.
135.
ZhangY. W.GanY. Q.2005 “The reliability and validity test of the Chinese Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES).” Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 13: 268–270.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
