Scandinavian Citizenship

Abstract

Theories about the democratic state should ideally deal with the state's smallest unit, the individual citizen, and with the institutions which support central public values. Yet there exists a serious gap between theories of the welfare state (a stateform which portends to be democratic) as we know it today and democratic theory, both on a theoretical level and on the level of empirical operationatization. This poses problems for the study of citizen ship, especially in the mature highly differentiated welfare states of Scan dinavia where recent democratization policies have added an aspect of citizenship, namely participatory rights and material entitlements, to almost all relationships between the state and the individual within a great variety of institutional settings These have been added on to older individual rights which protect the individual's autonomy against state intervention The welfare state literature, to the extent that it deals with individual citizens, treats those aspects of citizenship which are related to social policy entitlements. Democratic theories and empirical studies of democratic poli tics emphasize the participatory aspects of citizenship Any adequate account of contemporary citizenship in Scandinavia must include all these dimensions in order to grasp the interplay between material rights, multi-level par ticipation and political identities As states have changed so have the content and meaning of citizenship changed for the individuals living within their borders Yet most political theories do not attempt to combine the answers to central questions of modern citizenship 1. Who participates in the institutional life of society and the state? 2 What are the rights and duties attached to this participation? (questions to which the legal literature has addressed itself without being integrated into the social science literature). 3. Which values and resources are institutionalized, defended and distributed by public authonties? Congruence across institutions and between the three levels of society - the individual, the organizational and the institutional ones - can therefore only be assessed with great difficulty Yet from the point of view of democratic citizenship such congruence should be a normative as well as a practical prerequisite in order for citizens to make use of their rights, and live up to their duties as citizens, and in order to enable citizens to identify with the political system on ill three levels.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allardt, E. 1975. Att Ha, Elska, Att Vara Lund

Argos

Almond, G.S. 1963 Verba, The Civic Culture, Princeton : Princeton UP

Andersen, J.G. 1984 Kvinder og Politik. Aarhus: Politica.

Andersen, J.G. 1986. Electoral Trends in Denmark in the 1980s. Scandinavian Political Studies, 9(2), 157-174.

Bellah, R.N. et al. 1985 Habits of the Heart New York. Harper & Row

Bertilsson, M. 1987. Social Justice and Social Theory Uppsala - SCASS

Bjorklund, T. 1986. Kvinners og menns partipreferanser Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 5, 417-443.

Borchorst & Siim , 1986. Women in the Welfare State In Sassoon (ed ), Women and the Welfare State London

Hutchinson

Dahl, R. 1986. Procedural Democracy. In Dahl (ed.) Democracy, Liberty and Equality. Oslo: Norwegian University Press

10.

Dahl, R. & Lindblom, C. 1953. Politics, Economics and Welfare. New York: Harper & Row.

11.

Eduards, M. , Halsaa, B. , Skjeie, H. 1985. Equality: How Equal? In Haavio-Mannila, E. (ed ), Unfinished Democracy. London: Pergamon.

12.

Evans, P. , Rueschemeyer, D. & Skocpol, T. 1985 Bringing the State Back Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

13.

Flora, P. & Heidenheimer, A. 1981. The Development of Welfare States in Europe and America London: Transaction Books.

14.

Flora, P. & Albers, J. 1983. Modernization, Democratization and the Development of Welfare States in Western Europe. Flora and Heidenheimer , pp. 37-80.

15.

Frazer, N. 1986

What's Critical about Critical Theory? The Case of Habermas and Gender

New German Critique. 35, 97-131.

16.

Frazer. N. 1987 Women, Welfare and Politics of Needs. Hypatia, 3

17.

Habermas, J. 1981. Die Theorie des Kommmukativen Handelns Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.

18.

Habermas, J. 1985 Die Krise des Wohlfahrtsstaates und die Erschøpfung Utopischer Ideen. In Die Neue Unubersichtlichkeit. Frankfurt. Suhrkamp.

19.

Hedborg, A. & Meidner, R. 1983 *Folkhemsmodellen Stockholm: Raben & Sjøgren.

20.

Hyden, H. 1988. Rattsliga Styrningsmodeller i rattsstaten och valfardstaten, mot en rattstatlig valfardsrnodell Lund

21.

Heckscher, G. 1951. Staten och organisatronerna. Stockholm .

22.

Hedborg, A. & Meidner, R. 1983 Folkhenumodellen Stockholm: Raben & Sjøgren.

23.

Hernes, G. 1978 Forhandlingsøkonomi og Blandingsadministrasjon (Bargaining Economy and Mixed Administration) Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

24.

Hernes, H.M. 1982 Staten Kvinner ingen adgang? Oslo. Universitetsforlaget.

25.

Hernes, H.M. 1985 Staten og det sivile samfunn Samtiden 2.

26.

Hernes, H. M 1986. Die Geteilte Sozialpolitik In Hausen & Nowotny (eds ), Wie Maennlich ist die Wissenschaft? Frankfurt : Suhrkamp.

27.

Hernes. H.M. 1987 Welfare State and Woman Power Essays in State Feminism Oslo: Norwegian University Press .

28.

Hernes. G. & Selvik, A. 1981. Local Corporatism. In S. Berger , Organizing Interest in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

29.

Holmes, S.A. 1979. Aristippus in and out of Athens. American Political Science Review, 73, 113-129.

30.

Holmes, S. 1985. Differenzierung und Arbeitsteilung im Denken des Liberalismus In Luhmann (ed ), Soziale Differenzierung Opladen. Westdeutscher Verlag.

31.

Lafferty, W. 1986. Varieties of Democratic Experience Oslo.

32.

Lafferty, W. 1986 Den sosialdemokratiske stat. Nytt Norsk Tidsskrift. 3.

33.

Listhaug, O. , Miller, A. , Valen. H. 1985

The Gender Gap in Norwegian Voting

Behaviour Scandinavian Political Studies 8.

34.

Marshall, T.H. 1950 Citizenship and Social Class Cambridge Cambridge University Press.

35.

Martinussen, W. 1987. Solidaritetens Grenser (The Limits of Solidarity). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget (forthcoming).

36.

37.

Nielsen, T.H. 1985. Stat, marked og iudivid Samtiden 6 60-71

38.

Nybom, T. 1986a. The Making and Defense of the Social Democratic State . University of Uppsala: Department of History.

39.

Nybom, T. 1986b En fraga om formulenngsprimat Historisk Tidskrift 4

40.

Offe, C. 1983. Competitive Party Democracy and the Keynesian Welfare State Policy Sciences 15, 255-246

41.

42.

Offe, C. 1987 Democracy Against the Welfare State? Political Theory ( fall).

43.

Olsen, J.P. 1978. Politisk Organisering. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

44.

Olsen, J.P. 1983. Organized Democracy, Oslo: Universitetforlaget.

45.

Oskarson, M. 1987 Gender, Social Structure and Party Choice in Sweden. Gothenburg: Department of Political Science

46.

Pateman, C. 1985 (1979) The Problem of Political Obligation. Berkeley

University of California Press

47.

Pateman, C. 1987 The Patriarchal Welfare State. In A Gutman (ed ), Democracy and the Welfare State Princeton. Princeton University Press.

48.

Riedmuller, B. 1982. Frauen haben keine Rechte In Kickbusch und Riedmuller , Die Armen Frauen Frankfurt

49.

Rokkan, S. 1970 Citizens, Elections, Parties Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

50.

Sejersted, F. 1984. Demokratt og Rettsstat Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

51.

Svallfors, S. 1987 Offentlig sektor Stockholm Institute for Social Research.

52.

Torstendahl, R. 1984. Technology in the Development of Society. Four Phases of Industrial Capitalism in Western Europe. History, and Technology 157-174

53.

Torstendahl, R. 1986. Staten, samhaellet och den organiserade kapitalismen. Historisk Tidskrift, 4, 502-511.

54.

Walzer, M. 1970. Obligation Cambridge Harvard University Press.

55.

Walzer, M. 1985. Spheres of Justice New York: Basic Books.