Accurate outcome measures are important both in clinical practice and in research. Measurement of pain should include intensity, relief-seeking behaviour and changes in function. Beliefs and attitudes to pain are of crucial importance and various instruments for assessing these are discussed. Primary outcome measures used in clinical trials must be valid, reliable, specific and sensitive.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
McDowellI, NewellC (1996) Measuring Health; a Guide to Rating Scales and Questionnaires.Oxford University Press, New York
2.
VincentCA, ChapmanCR (1989) Pain measurement and the assessment of acupuncture treatment. Acupuncture in Medicine.6(1): 14–9
3.
MelzackR (1975) The McGill Pain Questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain.1: 277–91
4.
MelzackR (1987) The short—form McGill Pain Questionnaire. Pain.30: 191–7
5.
PriceDD, McGrathPA, RafiiA, BuckinghamB (1983) The validation of visual analogue scales as ratio scale measures for chronic and experimental pain. Pain.17: 45–56
6.
WaddellG (1992) Biopsychosocial analysis of low back pain. Clinical Rheumatology.6: 523–7
7.
HemingwayH, StaffordM, StansfieldM, ShipleyM, MarmotM (1997) Is the SF-36 a valid measure of change in population health? Results from the Whitehall II study, British Medical Journal.315: 1273–9
8.
HuntSM, McKennaSP, McEwenJ, WilliamsJ, PappE (1981) The Nottingham Health Profile: subjective health status and medical consultations. Social Science in Medicine. 15a: 221–9
9.
RolandM, MorrisR (1983) A study of the natural history of back pain. Part I: development of a reliable and sensitive measure of disability in low—back pain. Spine.8: 141–4
10.
FollickMJ, SmithTW, AhernDK (1985) The Sickness Impact Profile: a global measure of disability in chronic low back pain. Pain.21: 67–76
11.
FairbankJCT, CouperJ, DaviesJB, O'BrienJP (1980) The Oswestry low back pain disability questionnaire. Physiotherapy.66: 271–3
12.
CSAG: Clinical Studies Advisory Group. (1994) Committee Report: Back Pain.HMSO, London
13.
WallstonKA, WallstonBS (1978) Development of the multidimensional health locus of control (MHLC) scales. Health Education Monographs.6: 160–70
14.
RosenstielAK, KeefeFJ (1983) The use of coping strategies in chronic low back pain patients: relationship to patient characteristics and current adjustments. Pain.17: 33–44
15.
WaddellG, RichardsonJ (1991) Clinical assessment of overt pain behaviour by physicians during routine clinical examination. Journal of Psychosomatic Research.136: 77–87
16.
MainCJ, WaddellG (1991) A comparison of cognitive measures in low back pain: statistical structure and clinical validity at initial assessment. Pain.46: 287–98
17.
WaddellG, NewtonM, HendersonI, SomervilleD, MainCJ (1993) A fear—avoidance beliefs questionnaire (FABQ) and the role of fear—avoidance beliefs in chronic low back pain and disability. Pain.52: 157–68
18.
RCGP (1996) National Low Back Pain Clinical Guidelines.Royal College of General Practitioners, London
WeinmanJ, PetrieKJ, Moss-MorrisR, HomeR (1996) The illness perception questionnaire: a new method for assessing the cognitive representation of illness. Psychology and Health.11: 431–45
21.
CollinC, WadeDT, DaviesS (1988) The Barthel ADL Index: a reliability study. International Disability Studies.10: 61–3
22.
BowlingA (1996) Measuring Disease: A Review of Disease-Specific Quality of Life Measurement Scales, Open University Press, Buckingham
23.
VincentCA (1989) A controlled trial of the treatment of migraine by acupuncture. The Clinical Journal of Pain.5: 305–12
24.
LeakAM, CooperJ, DyerS, WilliamsKA, Turner-StokesL, FrankAO (1994) The Northwick Park neck pain questionnaire, devised to measure neck pain and disability. British Journal of Rheumatology.33: 469–74
25.
BellamyN, BuchananWW, GoldsmithCH (1988) Validation study of WOMAC: a health status instrument for measuring clinically important patient relevant outcomes to antirheumatic drug therapy in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee. Journal of Rheumatology15: 1833–40
26.
MeenanRF, MasonJH, AndersonJJ, GuiccioneAA, KazisLE (1992) AIMS2: the content and properties of a revised and expanded arthritis impact measurement scales health status questionnaire. Arthritis and Rheumatism.35: 1–10
27.
FriesJF, SpitzPW, KrainesRG, HolmanHR (1980) Measurement of patient outcome in arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism.23: 137–45
