The present study examined the mediating effect of processing speed on the relationship between state anxiety and reading comprehension in Chinese children with and without reading disabilities (RD). A total of 53 Chinese children with RD and 66 typically developing children were administered cognitive and noncognitive measures. We found that the two groups had distinct patterns of state anxiety and processing speed. A significant indirect effect of state anxiety on reading comprehension through processing speed was found only in children with RD. Our findings contribute to filling a research gap and provide evidence to front–line practitioners for adapting the teaching and measures for Chinese children with RD.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Al–YagonM. (2014). Child–mother and child–father attachment security: Links to internalizing adjustment among children with learning disabilities. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 45, 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578–013–0383–9
2.
Al–YagonM. (2015). Fathers and mothers of children with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 38, 112–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948713520556
3.
AlesiM., RappoG., & PepiA. (2014). Depression, anxiety at school and self–esteem in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Psychological Abnormalities, 3(3), 125. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329–9525.1000125
4.
AshcraftM. H., & KirkE. P. (2001). The relationships among working memory, math anxiety, and performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(2), 224–237. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096–3445.130.2.224
5.
BeardenW. O., SharmaS., & TeelJ. E. (1982). Sample size effects on chi square and other statistics used in evaluating causal models. Journal of Marketing Research, 19(4), 425–430. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151716
6.
BascoL. M., & HanS. H. (2016). Self–esteem, motivation, and anxiety of Korean university students. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 7(6), 1069–1078. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0706.02
7.
BensoussanM. (2012). Alleviating test anxiety for students of advanced reading comprehension. RELC Journal, 43(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688212449511
8.
BonifacciP., & SnowlingM. J. (2008). Speed of processing and reading disability: A cross–linguistic investigation of dyslexia and borderline intellectual functioning. Cognition, 107(3), 999–1017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.006
9.
BrackenB. A. (1992). Multidimensional Self Concept Scale: Examiner's manual. PRO–ED, Inc.
10.
CarrollJ. M., & IlesJ. E. (2006). An assessment of anxiety levels in dyslexic students in higher education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(3), 651–662. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709905x66233
11.
CarrollJ. M., MaughanB., GoodmanR., & MeltzerH. (2005). Literacy difficulties and psychiatric disorders: Evidence for comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46, 524–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469–610.2004.00366.x
12.
ChanD. W., HoC.S.H., TsangS. M., LeeS. H., & ChungK.K.H. (2007). Prevalence, gender ratio and gender differences in reading–related cognitive abilities among Chinese children with dyslexia in Hong Kong. Educational Studies, 33, 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690601068535.
13.
ChenJ. H., & ChenH. Y. (2006). Raven's progressive matrices–parallel manual. Chinese Behavioral Science Corporation.
14.
ChungK. K., HoC.S.H., ChanD. W., TsangS. M., & LeeS. H. (2010). Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia. Dyslexia, 16(1), 2–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219419882648
15.
ChungK. K., McBride–ChangC., WongS. W., CheungH., PenneyT. B., & HoC. S. (2008). The role of visual and auditory temporal processing for Chinese children with developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 58, 15–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881–008–0015–4
16.
CortiellaC., & HorowitzS. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends and emerging issues. National Center for Learning Disabilities.
17.
DerakshanN., & EysenckM. W. (2009). Anxiety, processing efficiency, and cognitive performance: New developments from attentional control theory. European Psychologist, 14(2), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016–9040.14.2.168
18.
DichevC., & DichevaD. (2017). Gamifying education: What is known, what is believed and what remains uncertain: A critical review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239–017–0042–5
19.
DunnL. M., & DunnL. M. (1981). Peabody picture vocabulary test–revised. American Guidance Service, Inc.
20.
ElmelidA., StickleyA., LindbladF., Schwab–StoneM., HenrichC. C., & RuchkinV. (2015). Depressive symptoms, anxiety and academic motivation in youth: Do schools and families make a difference?Journal of Adolescence, 45, 174–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.08.003
21.
EysenckM. W., & CalvoM. G. (1992). Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory. Cognition & Emotion, 6(6), 409–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939208409696
22.
EysenckM., PayneS., & DerakshanN. (2005). Trait anxiety, visuospatial processing, and working memory. Cognition & Emotion, 19(8), 1214–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930500260245
23.
FarmerM. E., & KleinR. M. (1995). The evidence for a temporal processing deficit linked to dyslexia: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2(4), 460–493. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03210983
24.
FrancisD. A., CaruanaN., HudsonJ. L., & McArthurG. M. (2019). The association between poor reading and internalising problems: A systematic review and meta–analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 67, 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.09.002
25.
GerstE. H., CirinoP. T., MacdonaldK. T., MiciakJ., YoshidaH., WoodsS. P., & GibbsM. C. (2021). The structure of processing speed in children and its impact on reading. Journal of Cognition and Development, 22(1), 84–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2020.1862121
26.
GiofrèD., BorellaE., & MammarellaI. C. (2017). The relationship between intelligence, working memory, academic self–esteem, and academic achievement. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 29(6), 731–747. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2017.1310110
27.
GreenbergJ., PyszczynskiT., SolomonS., RosenblattA., VeederM., KirklandS., & LyonD. (1990). Evidence for terror management theory II: The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who threaten or bolster the cultural worldview. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 58(2), 308–318. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.58.2.308
28.
Grills–TaquechelA. E., FletcherJ. M., VaughnS. R., & StuebingK. K. (2012). Anxiety and reading difficulties in early elementary school: Evidence for unidirectional– or bi–directional relations?Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578–011–0246–1
29.
GoochD., SearsC., MaydewH., VamvakasG., & NorburyC. F. (2019). Does inattention and hyperactivity moderate the relation between speed of processing and language skills?Child Development, Early View, 90, e565–e583. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13220
30.
HairJ. F., SarstedtM., RingleC. M., & MenaJ. A. (2012). An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(3), 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747–011–0261–6
31.
HammondS. I., MüllerU., CarpendaleJ. I., BibokM. B., & Liebermann–FinestoneD. P. (2012). The effects of parental scaffolding on preschoolers’ executive function. Developmental Psychology, 48(1), 271. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025519
32.
HayesA. F., & PreacherK. J. (2014). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67, 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12028
33.
Henderlong–CorpusJ., McClintic–GilbertM., & HayengaA. (2009). Within–year changes in children's intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations: Contextual predictors and academic outcomes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 154–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2009.01.001
34.
HoC. S., ChanD. W., TsangS. M., & LeeS. H. (2002). The cognitive profile and multiple–deficit hypothesis in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 38, 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012–1649.38.4.543
35.
HooperD., CoughlanJ., & MullenM. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 3(1), 53–60.
36.
HsuL., & AldenL. (2007). Social anxiety in Chinese– and European–heritage students: The effect of assessment format and judgments of impairment. Behavior Therapy, 38(2), 120–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.06.006
37.
HsuL., WoodyS. R., LeeH.–J., PengY., ZhouX., & RyderA. G. (2012). Social anxiety among East Asians in North America: East Asian socialization or the challenge of acculturation?Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(2), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027690
38.
JohnsonE. S., HumphreyM., MellardD. F., WoodsK., & SwansonH. L. (2010). Cognitive processing deficits and students with specific learning disabilities: A selective meta–analysis of the literature. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/073194871003300101
39.
JordanJ. A., McGladderyG., & DyerK. (2014). Dyslexia in higher education: Implications for maths anxiety, statistics anxiety and psychological well–being. Dyslexia, 20(3), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1478
40.
KerH. W., & ZhanY. L. (2006). Reading comprehension screening test (2nd to 6th grades). Taipei, Taiwan: Education Bureau.
41.
KlineR. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Publications.
42.
Lewis–FernándezR., HintonD. E., LariaA. J., PattersonE. H., HofmannS. G., CraskeM. G., SteinD. J., AsnaaniA., & LiaoB. (2010). Culture and the anxiety disorders: Recommendations for DSM–V. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 212–229. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20647
43.
LiS., & ZhengJ. (2017). The effect of academic motivation on students’ English learning achievement in the eSchoolbag–based learning environment. Smart Learning Environments, 4(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561–017–0042–x
44.
LiuD. (2014). Visual–spatial attention and its relationship with reading. In ChungK. K. H., YuenK. C. P., & McInerneyD. M. (Eds.). Understanding developmental disorders of auditory processing, language and literacy across languages: Perspectives (pp. 169–188). Information Age Press.
45.
LiuD., ChenX., & ChungK.K.H. (2015). Performance in a visual search task uniquely predicts reading abilities in third–grade Hong Kong Chinese children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19, 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1030749
46.
LiuD., ChenX., & WangY. (2016). The impact of visual–spatial attention on reading and spelling in Chinese children. Reading and Writing, 29, 1435–1447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145–016–9644–x
47.
MarkhamR., & DarkeS. (1991). The effects of anxiety on verbal and spatial task performance. Australian Journal of Psychology, 43(2), 107–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049539108259108
48.
MohammadpurB., & GhafourniaN. (2015). An elaboration on the effect of reading anxiety on reading achievement. English Language Teaching, 8(7), 206–215. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n7p206
49.
O'BrienR. M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity, 41(5), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135–006–9018–6
50.
O'RourkeD. J., SmithR. E., SmollF. L., & CummingS. P. (2014). Relations of parent–and coach–initiated motivational climates to young athletes’ self–esteem, performance anxiety, and autonomous motivation: who is more influential?Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26(4), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2014.907838
51.
PackmanJ., & BrattonS. C. (2003). A school–based group play/activity therapy intervention with learning disabled preadolescents exhibiting behavior problems. International Journal of Play Therapy, 12, 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088876.
52.
PelegO. (2009). Test anxiety, academic achievement, and self–esteem among Arab adolescents with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 32(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.2307/25474659
53.
PengP., WangC., TaoS., & SunC. (2017). The deficit profiles of Chinese children with reading difficulties: A meta–analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 29(3), 513–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648–016–9366–2
54.
Piechurska–KucielE. (2008) Input, processing and output anxiety in students with symptoms of developmental dyslexia. In KormosJ. & KontraE. H. (Eds.), Language learners with special needs (pp. 86–109). Multilingual Matters.
55.
PreacherK. J., & HayesA. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731.
56.
PreacherK. J., & HayesA. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
57.
RajchertJ. M., ŻułtakT., & SmulczykM. (2014). Predicting reading literacy and its improvement in the Polish national extension of the PISA study: The role of intelligence, trait–and state–anxiety, socio–economic status and school–type. Learning and Individual Differences, 33, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.020
58.
RajiahK., CoumaravelouS., & YingO. W. (2014). Relationship of test anxiety, psychological distress and academic motivation among first year undergraduate pharmacy students. International Journal of Applied Psychology, 4(2), 68–72. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ijap.20140402.04
59.
RamirezG., FriesL., GundersonE., SchaefferM. W., MaloneyE. A., BeilockS. L., & LevineS. C. (2018). Reading anxiety: An early affective impediment to children's success in reading. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20(1), 15–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2018.1526175
60.
ReidA. A., SzczerbinskiM., Iskierka–KasperekE., & HansenP. (2007). Cognitive profiles of adult developmental dyslexics: Theoretical implications. Dyslexia, 13(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.321
61.
RoivainenE. (2011). Gender differences in processing speed: A review of recent research. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(2), 145–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.11.021
ShanahanM. A., PenningtonB. F., YerysB. E., ScottA., BoadaR., WillcuttE. G., OlsonR. K., & DeFriesJ. C. (2006). Processing speed deficits in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and reading disability. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(5), 585–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802–006–9037–8
66.
SongJ., BongM., LeeK., & KimS. I. (2015). Longitudinal investigation into the role of perceived social support in adolescents’ academic motivation and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 821–841. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000016
67.
SpielbergerC. D. (1983). Manual for the state–trait–anxiety inventory: STAI (form Y). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
68.
StanovichK. E. (1988). The right and wrong places to look for the cognitive locus of reading disability. Annals of Dyslexia, 38(1), 154–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648254
69.
StoodleyC. J., & SteinJ. F. (2006). A processing speed deficit in dyslexic adults? Evidence from a peg–moving task. Neuroscience Letters, 399(3), 264–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2006.02.004
70.
SwansonH. L., TraininG., NecoecheaD. M., & HammillD. D. (2003). Rapid naming, phonological awareness, and reading: A meta–analysis of the correlational evidence. Review of Educational Research, 73, 407–440. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543073004407
71.
SunZ., ZouL., ZhangJ., MoS., ShaoS., ZhongR., KeJ., LuX., MiaoX., & SongR. (2013). Prevalence and associated risk factors of dyslexic children in a middle–sized city of China: A cross–sectional study. PLoS One, 8, e56688. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056688
72.
TobiaV., & MarzocchiG. M. (2014). Cognitive profiles of Italian children with developmental dyslexia. Reading Research Quarterly, 49(4), 437–452. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.77
73.
TsoviliT. D. (2004). The relationship between language teachers’ attitudes and the state–trait anxiety of adolescents with dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 27(1), 69–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–9817.2004.00215.x
74.
WachelkaD., & KatzR. C. (1999). Reducing test anxiety and improving academic self–esteem in high school and college students with learning disabilities. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 30(3), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005–7916(99)00024–5
75.
WangK.–C., & ChungF.–C. (2016). An investigation of multidimensional factorial validity of the Chinese version of State–Trait Anxiety Inventory. Psychological Testing, 63(4), 287–313. https://doi.org/10.7108/PT
76.
WangL.–C. (2020). The relationships among temporal processing, rapid naming, and oral reading fluency in Chinese children with and without dyslexia. Learning Disability Quarterly, 43(3), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948719892075
77.
WangL.–C., & YangH.–M. (2018). Temporal processing development in Chinese primary school–aged children with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51(3), 302–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416680798
78.
WangL.–C., LiuD., ChenJ.–K., & WuY.–C. (2018). Processing speed of dyslexia: the relationship between temporal processing and rapid naming in Chinese. Reading and Writing, 31(7), 1645–1668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145–018–9857–2
79.
WienerJ., & TardifC. Y. (2004). Social and emotional functioning of children with learning disabilities: Does special education placement make a difference?Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19, 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540–5826.2004.00086.x.
80.
WigfieldA., & GuthrieJ. T. (1997). Relations of children's motivation for reading to the amount and breadth or their reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–0663.89.3.420
81.
WoodS. G., HartS. A., LittleC. W., & PhillipsB. M. (2016). Test anxiety and a high–stakes standardized reading comprehension test: A behavioral genetics perspective. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 62(3), 233–251. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.62.3.0233
82.
XieF., XinZ., ChenX., & ZhangL. (2019). Gender difference of Chinese high school students’ math anxiety: The effects of self–esteem, test anxiety and general anxiety. Sex Roles, 81(3), 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199–018–0982–9
