School professionals may provide behavioral support for students using a tiered framework of intervention. Students who display problem behaviors and sustained resistance to interventions within these tiers may require special education services under the category of emotional and behavioral disorders. By the time students receive special education services, they will have experienced changes in intervention intensity, such as increased behavioral reinforcement or modification of functional assessment–informed individualized behavior plans. Yet, simply intensifying interventions quantitatively (more frequent reinforcement or progress monitoring) may not increase sufficiently students’ abilities to function successfully in school, because their needs may require behavioral and social–emotional skills instruction. Evidence highlights the importance of skill–based instruction that is sequenced, active, focused, and explicit. Therefore, after discussing current educational practices, we describe an intensive intervention that is responsive to student behavioral excesses and deficits through explicit skill instruction delivered through special education services, and consider research and practice implications.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlgozzineR., WangC., & VioletteA. S. (2011). Reexamining the relationship between academic achievement and social behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13(1), 3–16. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300709359084
2.
BarkleyR. A. (2001). The executive functions and self–regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11, 1–29. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009085417776
3.
BettiniE. A., CummingM. M., MerrillK. L., BrunstingN. C., & LiaupsinC. J. (2017). Working conditions in self–contained settings for students with emotional disturbance. The Journal of Special Education, 51(2), 83–94. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916674195
4.
BloodE., & NeelR. S. (2007). From FBA to implementation: A look at what is actually being delivered. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(4), 67–80. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2007.0021
5.
BostL. W., & RiccominiP. J. (2006). Effective instruction: An inconspicuous strategy for dropout prevention. Remedial and Special Education, 27(5), 301–311. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325060270050501
6.
BradleyR., DoolittleJ., & BartolottaR. (2008). Building on the data and adding to the discussion: The experiences and outcomes of students with emotional disturbance. Journal of Behavioral Education, 17, 4–23. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-007-9058-6
7.
BrockL. L., Rimm–KaufmanS. E., NathansonL., & GrimmK. J. (2009). The contributions of ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ executive function to children's academic achievement, learning–related behaviors, and engagement in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(3), 337–349. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.06.001
8.
BucknerJ. C., MezzacappaE., & BeardsleeW. R. (2009). Self–regulation and its relations to adaptive functioning in low income youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(1), 19–30. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014796
9.
BurnetteJ. L., O'BoyleE. H., VanEppsE. M., PollackJ. M., & FinkelE. J. (2013). Mind–sets matter: A meta–analytic review of implicit theories and self–regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 655–701. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531
10.
CarterE. W., TrainorA., OwensL., SwedenB., & SunY. (2010). Self–determination prospects of youth with high–incidence disabilities: Divergent perspectives and related factors. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 18(2), 67–81. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426609332605
11.
ClearyT. J., PlattenP., & NelsonA. (2008). Effectiveness of the self–regulation empowerment program with urban high school students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20(1), 70–107. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4219/jaa-2008-866
12.
Collaborative for Social, Emotional, and Academic Learning. (2017). Core SEL competencies. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://www.casel.org/core-competencies/
13.
ConroyM. A., AlterP. J., & ScottT. M. (2009). Functional behavior assessment and students with emotional/behavioral disorders: When research, policy, and practice collide. In ScruggsT. E. & MastropieriM. A. (Eds.), Policy and practice: Advances in learning and behavior disabilities (pp. 133–167). Bingly, UK: Emerald.
14.
DarlingN., CumsilleP., & MartínezM. L. (2008). Individual differences in adolescents’ beliefs about the legitimacy of parental authority and their own obligation to obey: A longitudinal investigation. Child Development, 79(4), 1103–1118. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01178.x
15.
DavidsonR. J., PutnamK. M., & LarsonC. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation – a possible prelude to violence. Science, 289(5479), 591–594. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5479.591
16.
DiamondA., & LeeK. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
17.
DomitrovichC. E., BradshawC. P., BergJ. K., PasE. T., BeckerK. D., MusciR., et al. (2016). How do school–based prevention programs impact teachers? Findings from a randomized trial of an integrated classroom management and social–emotional program. Prevention Science, 17(3), 325–337. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0618-z
18.
DurlakJ. A., WeissbergR. P., & PachanM. (2010). A meta–analysis of after–school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 294–309. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6
19.
DurlakJ. A., WeissbergR. P., DymnickiA. B., TaylorR. D., & SchellingerK. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta–analysis of school–based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
20.
D'ZurillaT. J., NezuA. M., & Maydeu–OlivaresA. (2004). Social problem solving: Theory and assessment. In ChangE. C., D'ZurillaT. J., & SannaL. J. (Eds.), Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training (pp. 11–27). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
EisenbergN., HoferC., & VaughanJ. (2007). Effortful control and its socioemotional consequences. In GrossJ. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 287–306). New York: Guilford.
23.
EisenbergN., ValienteC., & EggumN. D. (2010). Self–regulation and school readiness. Early Education & Development, 21(5), 681–698. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.497451
24.
FarmerT. W., SutherlandK. S., TalbottE., BrooksD. S., NorwalkK., & HunekeM. (2016). Special educators as intervention specialists: Dynamic systems and the complexity of intensifying intervention for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 24(3), 173–186. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426616650166
25.
FuchsL. S., FuchsD., & MaloneA. S. (2017). The taxonomy of intervention intensity. Teaching Exceptional Children, 50(1), 35–43. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059917703962
26.
GableR. A., HendricksonJ. M., TonelsonS. W., & Van AckerR. (2002). Integrating academic and non–academic instruction for students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Education & Treatment of Children, 25(4), 459–475. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42899722
27.
GableR. A., ParkK. L., & ScottT. M. (2014). Functional behavioral assessment and students at risk for or with emotional disabilities: Current issues and considerations. Education and Treatment of Children, 37(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0011
GageN. A., LewisT. J., & StichterJ. P. (2012). Functional behavioral assessment–based interventions for students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorders in school: A hierarchical linear modeling meta–analysis. Behavioral Disorders, 37(2), 55–77. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23890731
30.
GohA. E., & BambaraL. M. (2010). Individualized positive behavior support in school settings: A meta–analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5). 271–286. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510383990
31.
GrazianoP. A., & HartK. (2016). Beyond behavior modification: Benefits of social–emotional/self–regulation training for preschoolers with behavior problems. Journal of School Psychology, 58, 91–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2016.07.004
32.
GreshamF. M., WatsonS. T., & SkinnerC. H. (2001). Functional behavior assessment: Principles, procedures, and future directions. School Psychology Review, 30(2), 156–172. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-01754-001
33.
GrossJ. J., & ThompsonR. A. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In GrossJ. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–20). New York: Guilford.
34.
HofmannW., SchmeichelB. J., & BaddeleyA. D. (2012). Executive functions and self– regulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(3), 174–180. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.01.006
35.
HughesJ. N., LuoW., KwokO., & LoydL. K. (2008). Teacher–student support, effortful engagement, and achievement: A 3–year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology,100(1), 1–14. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.1
36.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).
KaplanS., & BermanM. G. (2010). Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and self–regulation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 43–57. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691609356784
39.
KernL., & WehbyJ. H. (2014). Using data to intensify behavioral interventions for individual students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(4), 45–53. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059914522970
40.
KilluK., WeberK. P., DerbyK. M., & BarrettoA. (2006). Behavior intervention planning and implementation of positive behavioral support plans: An examination of states’ adherence to standards for practice. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(4), 195–200. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007060080040201
KooleS. L., Van DillenL. F., & SheppesG. (2011). The self–regulation of emotion. In VohsK. D. & BaumeisterR. F. (Eds.), Handbook of self–regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 22–40). New York: Guilford.
43.
LaneK. L., & CarterE. W. (2006). Supporting transition–age youth with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders at the secondary level: A need for further inquiry. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14(2), 66–70. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266060140020301
44.
LaneK. L., WehbyJ., & Barton–ArwoodS. M. (2005). Students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders: Meeting their social and academic needs. Preventing School Failure, 49(2), 6–9. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3200/PSFL.49.2.6-9
45.
LoniganC. J., AllanD. M., GoodrichJ. M., FarringtonA. L., & PhillipsB. M. (2017). Inhibitory control of Spanish–speaking language–minority preschool children: Measurement and association with language, literacy, and math skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(4), 373–385. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219415618498
46.
MaagJ. W. (2006). Social skills training for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: A review of reviews. Behavioral Disorders, 32(1), 5–17. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290603200104
47.
MattisonR. E., HooperS. R., & GlassbergL. A. (2002). Three–year course of learning disorders in special education students classified as behavioral disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(12), 1454–1461. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200212000-00017
48.
McKownC., GumbinerL. M., RussoN. M., & LiptonM. (2009). Social–emotional learning skill, self–regulation, and social competence in typically developing and clinic–referred children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38(6), 858–871. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410903258934
49.
MischelW., ShodaY., & RodriguezM. I. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933–938. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2658056
50.
National Center on Intensive Intervention. (2013a). Data–based individualization: A framework for intensive intervention. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/DBI_Framework.pdf
NelsonJ. R., BennerG. J., LaneK., & SmithB. W. (2004). Academic achievement of K–12 students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 71, 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290407100104
53.
NelsonJ. R., HurleyK. D., SynhorstL., EpsteinM. H., StageS., & BuckleyJ. (2009). The child outcomes of a behavioral model. Exceptional Children, 76, 7–30. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290907600101
54.
NewmanL., WagnerM., CametoR., & KnokeyA. M. (2009). The post–high school outcomes of youth with disabilities up to 4 years after high school. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2009–3017). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
55.
NowickiE. A. (2003). A meta–analysis of the social competence of children with learning disabilities compared to classmates of low and average to high achievement. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26(3), 171–188. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2307/1593650
56.
O'NeillR. E., AlbinR. W., StoreyK., HornerR. H., & SpragueJ. R. (2015). Functional assessment and program development for problem behavior: A practical handbook. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
57.
PintrichP. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self–regulated learning. In BoekaertsM., PintrichP., & ZeidnerM. (Eds.), The role of goal orientation in self–regulated learning (pp. 451–502). San Diego: Academic Press. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50043-3
58.
PolsgroveL., & SmithS. W. (2004). Informed practice of teaching self–control to children with emotional and behavioral disorders. In RutherfordR. B., QuinnM. M., & MathurS. R. (Eds.), Handbook of research in emotional and behavioral disorders (pp. 399–425). New York: Guilford.
59.
ReidR., GonzalezJ. E., NordnessP. D., TroutA., & EpsteinM. H. (2004). A meta–analysis of the academic status of students with emotional/behavioral disturbance. The Journal of Special Education, 38(3), 130–143. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669040380030101
60.
ReynaV. F., & FarleyF. (2006). Risk and rationality in adolescent decision making: Implications for theory, practice, and public policy. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7(1), 1–44. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00026.x
61.
RiggsN. R., GreenbergM. T., KuschéC. A., & PentzM. A. (2006). The mediational role of neurocognition in the behavioral outcomes of a social–emotional prevention program in elementary school students: Effects of the PATHS curriculum. Prevention Science, 7(1), 91–102. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-005-0022-1
62.
SabornieE. J., CullinanD., OsborneS. S., & BrockL. B. (2005). Intellectual, academic, and behavioral functioning of students with high–incidence disabilities: A cross–categorical meta–analysis. Exceptional Children, 72, 47–63. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290507200103
63.
Sanz de Acedo LizarragaM. L. S., UgarteM. D., IriarteM. D., & de Acedo BaquedanoM. T. S. (2003). Immediate and long–term effects of a cognitive intervention on intelligence, self–regulation, and academic achievement. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(1), 59–74. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173604
64.
ScottT. M., McIntyreJ., LiaupsinC., NelsonC. M., ConroyM., & PayneL. D. (2005). An examination of the relation between functional behavior assessment and selected intervention strategies with school–based teams. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(4), 205–215. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007050070040201
65.
SimT. N., & KohF. S. (2003). A domain conceptualization of adolescent susceptibility to peer pressure. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(1), 57–80. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.1301002
66.
SimondsJ., KierasJ. E., RuedaM. R., & RothbartM. K. (2007). Effortful control, executive attention, and emotional regulation in 7–10–year–old children. Cognitive Development, 22, 474–488. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.009
67.
SmithS. W., & DaunicA. P. (2006). Managing difficult behavior through problem solving instruction: Strategies for the elementary classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
68.
SmithS. W., LochmanJ. E., & DaunicA. P. (2005). Managing aggression using cognitive–behavioral interventions: State of the practice and future directions. Behavioral Disorders, 30(3), 227–240. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290503000307
69.
SmithS. W., DaunicA. P., AlginaJ., PittsD. L., MerrillK. L., CummingM. M., & AllenC. (2017). Self–regulation for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: Preliminary effects of the I Control curriculum. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 25(3), 143–156. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426616661702
70.
SugaiG., & HornerR. H. (2009). Responsiveness–to–intervention and school–wide positive behavior supports: Integration of multi–tiered system approaches. Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal, 17(4), 223–237. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/09362830903235375
71.
SugaiG., Lewis–PalmerT., & Hagan–BurkeS. (2000). Overview of the functional behavioral assessment process. Exceptionality, 8, 149–160. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327035ex0803_2
72.
TaylorR. D., OberleE., DurlakJ. A., & WeissbergR. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school–based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta–analysis of follow–up effects. Child Development, 88(4), 1156–1171. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864
73.
TroutA. L., NordnessP. D., PierceC. D., & EpsteinM. H. (2003). Research on the academic status of children with emotional and behavioral disorders: A review of the literature from 1961 to 2000. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11(4), 198–210. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266030110040201
74.
WagnerM., KutashK., DuchnowskiA. J., EpsteinM. H., & SumiW. C. (2005). The children and youth we serve: A national picture of the characteristics of students with emotional disturbances receiving special education. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13(2), 79–96. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266050130020201
75.
WalkerH. M., & ShinnM. R. (2002). Structuring school–based interventions to achieve integrated primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention goals for safe and effective schools. In ShinnS. R., WalkerH. M., & StonerG. (Eds.), Academic and behavioral interventions II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 1–27). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
76.
WehbyJ. H., & KernL. (2014). Intensive behavior intervention: What is it, what is its evidence base, and why do we need to implement now?Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(4), 38–44. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059914523956
WhiteB. A., JarrettM. A., & OllendickT. H. (2013). Self–regulation deficits explain the link between reactive aggression and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9310-9
79.
ZelazoP. D., BlairC. B., & WilloughbyM. T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education (NCER 2017–2000). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
80.
ZhouQ., ChenS. H., & MainA. (2012). Commonalities and differences in the research on children's effortful control and executive function: A call for an integrated model of self–regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 112–121. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00176.x
81.
ZigmondN. (2006). Twenty–four months after high school: Paths taken by youth diagnosed with severe emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14, 99–107. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266060140020601
82.
ZimmermanB. J. (2012). Goal setting: A key proactive source of academic self–regulation. In SchunkD. H. & ZimmermanB. J. (Eds.), Motivation and self–regulated learning: Theory, research, and application (pp. 267–296). Chicago: Routledge.
