Physicians under the Influence: Social Psychology and Industry Marketing Strategies

McCurdy E. , The Mind of Leonardo da Vinci (New York: Dover Publications, 2005): At 23.

Sah S. , “Conflicts of Interest and Your Physician: Psychological Processes That Cause Unexpected Changes in Behavior,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 40, no. 3 (2012): 482–487.

Cialdini R. B. , The Psychology of Persuasion (New York: Quill William Morrow, 1984).

Wazana A. , “Physicians and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Is a Gift Ever Just a Gift?” JAMA 283, no. 3 (2000): 373–380; Orlowski J. P. Wateska L. , “The Effects of Pharmaceutical Firm Enticements on Physician Prescribing Patterns. There's No Such Thing as a Free Lunch,” Chest 102, no. 1 (1992): 270–273; Chren M. M. Landefeld C. S. , “Physicians' Behavior and Their Interactions with Drug Companies,” JAMA 271, no. 9 (1994): 684–689; Elliott C. , White Coat, Black Hat: Adventures on the Dark Side of Medicine (Boston: Beacon Press, 2010).

Shaughnessy A. F. Slawson D. C. Bennett J. H. , “Separating the Wheat from the Chaff,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 9, no. 10 (1994): 563–568; Molloy W. Strang D. Guyatt G. Lexchin J. Bédard M. Dubois S. Russo R. , “Assessing the Quality of Drug Detailing,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 55, no. 8 (2002): 825–832.

Avorn J. Chen M. Hartley R. , “Scientific Versus Commercial Sources of Influence on the Prescribing Behavior of Physicians,” American Journal of Medicine 73, no. 1 (1982): 4–8.

Sah S. Moore D. A. MacCoun R. , “Cheap Talk and Credibility: The Consequences of Confidence and Accuracy on Advisor Credibility and Persuasiveness,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 121, no. 2 (2013): 246–255.

Tversky A. Kahneman D. , “Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” Science 185, no. 4157 (1974): 1124–1131; Strack F. Mussweiler T. , “Explaining the Enigmatic Anchoring Effect: Mechanisms of Selective Accessibility,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73, no. 3 (1997): 437–446; Skurnik I. Yoon C. Park D.C. Schwarz N. , “How Warnings about False Claims Become Recommendations,” Journal of Consumer Research 31, no. 4 (2005): 713–724.

Makhinson M. , “Biases in Medication Prescribing: The Case of Second-Generation Antipsychotics,” Journal of Psychiatric Practice 16, no. 1 (2010): 15–21.

See Sah , supra note 2; Sah S. Loewenstein G. , “Effect of Reminders of Personal Sacrifice and Suggested Rationalizations on Residents' Self-reported Willingness to Accept Gifts: A Randomized Trial,” JAMA 304, no. 11 (2010): 1204–1211.

Lurie N. Rich E. C. Simpson D. E. Meyer J. Schiedermayer D. L. Goodman J. L. McKinney W. P. , “Pharmaceutical Representatives in Academic Medical Centers,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 5, no. 3 (1990): 240–243; Wazana A. , “Physicians and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Is a Gift Ever Just a Gift?” JAMA 283, no. 3 (2000): 373–380; Chren M. M. Landefeld C. S. , “Physicians' Behavior and Their Interactions with Drug Companies: A Controlled Study of Physicians Who Requested Additions to a Hospital Drug Formulary,” JAMA 271, no. 9 (1994): 684–689.

McKinney W. P. Schiedermayer D. L. Lurie N. Simpson D. E. Goodman J. L. Rich E. C. , “Attitudes of Internal Medicine Faculty and Residents toward Professional Interaction with Pharmaceutical Sales Representatives,” JAMA 264, no. 13 (1990): 1693–1697; Steinman M. A. Shlipak M. G. McPhee S. J. , “Of Principles and Pens: Attitudes and Practices of Medicine Housestaff toward Pharmaceutical Industry Promotions,” American Journal of Medicine 110, no. 7 (2001): 551–557; Sigworth S. K. Nettleman M. D. Cohen G. M. , “Pharmaceutical Branding of Resident Physicians,” JAMA 286, no. 9 (2001): 1024–1025.

Dana J. Loewenstein G. , “A Social Science Perspective on Gifts to Physicians from Industry,” JAMA 290, no. 2 (2003): 252–255.

Pronin E. Lin D. Y. Ross L. , “The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no. 3 (2002): 369–391; Pronin E. Gilovich T. Ross L. , “Objectivity in the Eye of the Beholder: Divergent Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others,” Psychological Review 111, no. 3 (2004): 781–799.

Pronin E. Gilovich T. Ross L. , “Objectivity in the Eye of the Beholder: Divergent Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others,” Psychological Review 111, no. 3 (2004): 781–799; Babcock L. Loewenstein G. Issacharoff S. , “Creating Convergence: Debiasing Biased Litigants,” Law & Social Inquiry 22, no. 4 (1997): 913–925.

Babcock L. Loewenstein G. , “Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self-Serving Biases,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 11, no. 1 (1997): 109–126; Babcock L. Loewenstein G. Issacharoff S. Camerer C. , “Biased Judgments of Fairness in Bargaining,” American Economic Review 85, no. 5 (1995): 1337–1343; Loewenstein G. Issacharoff S. Camerer C. Babcock L. , “Self-Serving Assessments of Fairness and Pretrial Bargaining,” Journal of Legal Studies 22, no. 1 (1993): 135–159.

Id. ( Babcock Loewenstein , “Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self-Serving Biases,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 11, no. 1 (1997): 109–126.

Festinger L. , A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford University Press, 1957): At 1–31.

Chimonas S. C. Brennan T. A. Rothman D. J. , “Physicians and Drug Representatives: Exploring the Dynamics of the Relationship,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 22, no. 2 (2007): 184–190.

See supra note 2.

Sah S. Larrick R. , “I Am Immune: A Sense of Invulnerability Predicts Increased Acceptance of, and Influence from, Conflicts of Interest,” Research in Progress (2013); Pronin E. Lin D. Y. Ross L. , “The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no. 3 (2002): 369–391.

L'Oréal Paris, available at <http://www.loreal-paris.co.uk/_en/_gb/lorealinsider/news-and-reviews/news-article.aspx?cat=Skincare&id=201203_News029> (last visited July 2, 2013).

See Sah S. Loewenstein G. , “Effect of Reminders of Personal Sacrifice and Suggested Rationalizations on Residents' Self-reported Willingness to Accept Gifts: A Randomized Trial,” JAMA 304, no. 11 (2010): 1204–1211.

Cialdini R. B. , Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (New York: HarperBusiness, 2006); Goldstein N. J. Martin S. J. Cialdini R. B. , Yes!: 50 Scientifically Proven Ways to Be Persuasive (New York: Free Press, 2008).

See Cialdini , supra note 24, at 17–56.

Mauss M. , The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies (London: Routledge, 2006).

Mather C. , “The Pipeline and the Porcupine: Alternate Metaphors of the Physician–Industry Relationship,” Social Science Medicine 60, no. 6 (2005): 1323–1334.

Oldani M. M. , “Thick Prescriptions: Toward an Interpretation of Pharmaceutical Sales Practices,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 18, no. 3 (2004): 325–356.

See Elliott , supra note 4, at 63.

Id., at 55–56.

See supra note 27.

See, Rodwin M. , “Five Un-Easy Pieces to Pharmaceutical Policy Reform,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 41, no. 3 (2013): 581–589.

PhRMA Code on Interactions with Healthcare Professionals, available at <http://phrma.org/sites/default/files/pdf/phrma_marketing_code_2008–1.pdf> (last visited April 8, 2013).

Fugh-Berman A. Ahari S. , “Following the Script: How Drug Reps Make Friends and Influence Doctors,” PLoS Medicine 4, no. 4 (2007): 621–625.

See Cialdini , supra note 24, at 17–56; Cialdini R. B. Vincent J. E. Lewis S. K. Catalan J. Wheeler D. Darby B. L. , “Reciprocal Concessions Procedure for Inducing Compliance: The Door-in-the-Face Technique,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 2 (1975): 206–215; Malmendier U. Schmidt K. M. , “You Owe Me,” Working Paper (2011); Friedman H. Rahman A. , “Gifts-Upon-Entry and Appreciatory Comments: Reciprocity Effects in Retailing,” International Journal of Marketing Studies 3, no. 3 (2011): 161–164.

Id. ( Malmendier Schmidt ).

Regan D. T. , “Effects of a Favor and Liking on Compliance,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 7, no. 6 (1971): 627–639.

See Friedman Rahman , supra note 35.

See supra note 33.

Fugh-Berman A. , “Prescription Tracking and Public Health,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 23, no. 8 (2008): 1277–1280.

See Cialdini , supra note 24, at 57–113.

Knox R. E. Inkster J. A. , “Postdecision Dissonance at Post Time,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8, no. 4 (1968): 319–323.

See supra note 40.

Howard D. J. , “The Influence of Verbal Responses to Common Greetings on Compliance Behavior: The Foot-In-The-Mouth Effect,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 20, no. 14 (1990): 1185–1196.

Cialdini R. B. , Influence: Science and Practice (Illinois: Scott, Foresman Glenview, 1985): At 116; Asch S. E. , “Studies of Independence and Conformity: I. A Minority of One Against a Unanimous Majority,” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 70, no. 9 (1956): 1–70; Deutsch M. Gerard H. B. , “A Study of Normative and Informational Social Influences upon Individual Judgment,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 51, no. 3 (1955): 629–636.

King M. Essick C. Bearman P. Ross J. S. , “Medical School Gift Restriction Policies and Physician Prescribing of Newly Marketed Psychotropic Medications: Difference-in-Differences Analysis,” BMJ 346 (2013): 1–9.

Grande D. Frosch D. L. Perkins A. W. Kahn B. E. , “Effect of Exposure to Small Pharmaceutical Promotional Items on Treatment Preferences,” Archives of Internal Medicine 169, no. 9 (2009): 887–893.

Austad K. E. Avorn J. Kesselheim A. S. , “Medical Students' Exposure to and Attitudes about the Pharmaceutical Industry: A Systematic Review,” PLoS Medicine 8, no. 5 (2011): 1–12.

Id.

McCormick B. B. Tomlinson G. Brill-Edwards P. Detsky A. S. , “Effect of Restricting Contact between Pharmaceutical Company Representatives and Internal Medicine Residents on Posttraining Attitudes and Behavior,” JAMA 286, no. 16 (2001): 1994–1999; Ferguson R. P. Rhim E. Belizaire W. Egede L. Carter K. Lansdale T. , “Encounters with Pharmaceutical Sales Representatives among Practicing Internists,” American Journal of Medicine 107, no. 2 (1999): 149–152.

See Steinman , supra note 12; Sierles F. S. Brodkey A. C. Cleary L. M. McCurdy F. A. Mintz M. Frank J. Lynn D. J. , “Medical Students' Exposure to and Attitudes about Drug Company Interactions: A National Survey,” JAMA 294, no. 9 (2005): 1034–1042.

See supra note 33.

See Elliott , supra note 4, at 64.

Id., at 56.

See supra note 33.

See, Sismondo S. , “Key Opinion Leaders and the Corruption of Medical Knowledge: What the Sunshine Act Will and Won't Cast Light On,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 41, no. 3 (2013): 635–643.

See Elliott , supra note 4; Steinman M. A. Harper G. M. Chren M.-M. Landefeld C. S. Bero L. A. , “Characteristics and Impact of Drug Detailing for Gabapentin,” PLoS Medicine 4, no. 4 (2007): 743–751.

See Elliott , supra note 4, at 77.

See supra note 33.

Goldfinger S. E. , “A Matter of Influence.” New England Journal of Medicine 316, no. 22 (1987): 1408–1409.

Festinger L. , A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957); Festinger L. Carlsmith J. M. , “Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 58, no. 2 (1959): 203–210.

Id. ( Festinger Carlsmith ).

Kelman H. C. , “Attitude Change as a Function of Response Restriction,” Human Relations 6, no. 3 (1953): 185–214.

See Goldfinger , supra note 60; Chren Landefeld , supra note 11.

Id. ( Chren Landefeld ).

See Sierles , supra note 51.

Sagarin B. J. Cialdini R. B. Rice W. E. Serna S. B. , “Dispelling the Illusion of Invulnerability: The Motivations and Mechanisms of Resistance to Persuasion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 3 (2002): 526–541.

Fugh-Berman A. Scialli A. Bell A. M. , “Why Lunch Matters: Assessing Physician's Perceptions about Industry Relationships,” Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions 30, no. 3 (2010): 197–204.