The Troubling Persistence of Race in Pharmacogenomics

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See Elton , supra note 4 (emphasis added).

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See Elton , supra note 4. Or as the article itself concluded, “Our findings suggest that unrecognized interactions of tumor biological, hormonal, and/or inherited host factors must be contributing to differential survival outcomes by race in sex-specific malignancies.” See Albain , supra note 9, at 991 (emphasis added).

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See Elton , supra note 4.

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Id., at 1644 (emphasis added).

Id., at 1643 (emphasis added).

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See supra note 28, at 139.

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See supra note 36.

See, e.g., Nguye A. Desta Z. , and Flockhart D. A. , “Enhancing Race-Based Prescribing Precision with Pharmacogenomics,” Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 81 (2007): 323–324, at 324.

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See Kim , supra note 28, at 140.

See Wu , supra note 43.

See, e.g., id.

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See supra note 50.

See, generally, Hilts P. , Protecting America's Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation (2003).

See Matthews , supra note 41.

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The International Warfarin Pharmacogenetics Consortium, “Estimation of the Warfarin Dose with Clinical and Pharmacogenetic Data,” New England Journal of Medicine 360 (2009): 753–764.

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See supra note 57, at 753.

Id., at 754.

Cho M. and Sankar P. , “Forensic Genetics and Ethical, Legal and Social Implications beyond the Clinic,” Nature Genetics 36, no. 11, Supp. (2004): S8–S12 at S9, citing Leech K. A. , “A Question in Dispute: The Debate about an ‘Ethnic’ Question in the Census,” in Runnymeade Research Report (1989).

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See, e.g., Hahn R. , “The State of Federal Health Statistics on Racial and Ethnic Groups,” JAMA 267, no. 2 (1992): 268–271; Hahn R. Mulinare R. J. , and Teutsch S. , “Inconsistencies in Coding of Race and Ethnicity between Birth and Death in U.S. Infants,” JAMA 267, no. 2 (1992): 259–263; Hahn R. Truman B. I. , and Barker N. , “Identifying Ancestry: The Reliability of Ancestral Identification in the United States by Self, Proxy, Interviewer, and Funeral Director,” Epidemiology 7, no. 1 (1996): 75–80.

See supra note 57.

Id., at 753.

Id., at 758.

Id., at 758 (emphasis added).

Id., at 759 (emphasis added).

For an excellent discussion of racial categories and “kinds,” see Root M. , “How We Divide the World,” Philosophy of Science 67, no. 3 (Proceedings) (2000): S628–S639.

Supplementary Appendix to the International Warfarin Pharmacogenetics Consortium, “Estimation of the Warfarin Dose with Clinical and Pharmacogenetic Data,” New England Journal of Medicine 360, no. S15 (2009): 753–764. My thanks to Jay Kaufman for pointing this out and helping me interpret the statistical data.

Id., at S5.

Id., at S6.

Bowser R. , “Racial Profiling in Health Care: An Institutional Analysis of Medical Treatment Disparities,” Michigan Journal of Race & Law 7 (Fall 2001): 79–133, at 111. For a broader analysis of the operation of the “white norm” in American law, see Crenshaw K. W. , “Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law,” Harvard Law Review 101, no. 7 (1988): 1331–1387, especially at 1377–1379.

See supra note 72, at S6.

Gage B.F. , “Use of Pharmacogenetic and Clinical Factors to Predict the Therapeutic Dose of Warfarin,” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 84, no. 3 (2008): 326–331, at 326.

See supra note 29, at 328.

Id.

See supra note 24, at 1643.