Realization of the International Human Right to Health in an Economically Integrated North America

Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Justice, June 25, 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, 3 Bevans 1153 [hereinafter U.N. Charter] (entered into force October 24, 1945).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/810 (December 10, 1948).

Constitution of the World Health Organization, pmbl., July 22, 1946, 62 Stat. 6349, 14 U.N.T.S. 185, reprinted in 15 Dep't St. Bull. 211 (August 4, 1946).

See Kinney E. D. , “The International Human Right to Health: What Does This Mean for Our Nation and World?” Indiana Law Review 34, no. 4 (2001): 1457–1475.

See Articles of Agreement of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, art. 1, December 27, 1945, 60 Stat. 1440, 2 U.N.T.S. 134; Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund, art. 1, December 27, 1945, 60 Stat. 1401, 2 U.N.T.S. 40; World Trade Organization, World Trade Report 2007, 179–80 (2007), available at <http://www.wto.org/English/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/world_trade_report07_e.pdf> (last visited October 5, 2009).

The material in this section was developed in Kinney E. , “Health Care Financing and Delivery in the US, Mexico and Canada: Finding and Establishing Intentional Principles for Sound Integration,” Wisconsin International Law Journal 26, no. 3 (2009): 935–965.

See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, October 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11, 55 U.N.T.S. 194 [hereinafter cited as GATT].

Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, April15, 1994, 33 I.L.M. 1125 (1994).

The General Agreement on Trade in Services was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations as an Annex to the WTO Agreement and came into effect on January 1, 1995. See General Agreement on Trade in Services, April 15, 1994, 33 I.L.M. 1167 [hereinafter cited as GATS].

Id., at art. I.3(a), at 1169.

See, e.g., Garcia F. J. , “Global Justice and the Bretton Woods Institutions,” Journal of International Economic Law 10, no. 2 (2007): 461–481; Carrasco E. R. , “Critical Issues Facing the Bretton Woods System: Can the IMF, World Bank, and the GATT/WTO Promote an Enabling Environment for Social Development?” Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 6, no. 2 (1996): Vii-xxvi; Meier G. M. , “The Bretton Woods Agreement-Twenty-Five Years After,” Stanford Law Review 23, no. 2 (1971): 235–275.

Smith R. D. Chanda R. Tangcharoensathien V. , “Trade in Health-Related Services,” The Lancet 373, no. 9663 (2009): 593–601; Smith R. D. Lee K. Drager N. , “Trade and Health: An Agenda for Action,” The Lancet 373, no. 9665 (2009): 768–773; Lee K. Sridhar D. Patel M. , “Bridging the Divide: Global Governance of Trade and Health,” The Lancet 373, no. 9661 (2009): 416–422; Shaffer E. R. , “Global Trade and Public Health,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 1 (2005): 23–24; Pollock A. Price D. , “The Public Health Implications of World Trade Negotiations on The General Agreement on Trade in Services and Public Services,” The Lancet 362, no. 9389 (2003): 1072–1075.

World Trade Organization/World Health Organization, WTO Agreements and Public Health: A Joint Study of the WHO and the WTO Secretariat , 2002. See Correa C. M. , Implementing National Public Health Policies in the Framework of WTO Agreements , WHO, 2002, available at <http://www.cct-freiburg.de/who/global/documents/implementingnatpubhlthpol.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

North American Free Trade Agreement, U.S.-Can.-Mex., December 17, 1992, 32 I.L.M. 289 (1993) [hereinafter cited as NAFTA].

The Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement, U.S.-Can., January 2, 1988, 27 I.L.M. 281 (1988).

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 2204.

Id., at Preamble.

Id., at art. 105.

Id., at Preamble.

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 1108 and art. 1206.

Homedes N. Ugalde A. , “Globalization and Health in the United States-Mexican Border,” American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 12 (2003): 2016–2022; Gold E. R. , “International Trade and Health Care Reform,” in Caulfield T. A. Von Tigerstrom B. , eds., Health Care Reform and the Law in Canada (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2002): At 223–244; Gómez-Dantés O Frenk J. Cruz C. , “Commerce in Health Services within the North American Free Trade Agreement,” American Journal of Public Health 1, no. 6 (1997): 460–465. See also, Warner D. C. , ed., NAFTA and Trade in Medical Services between the U.S. and Mexico (Austin: University of Texas, 1997).

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 1115–1138 (Investment); art. 1414 (Financial Services); and ch. 19 (Review and Dispute Settlement in Antidumping/Countervailing Duty Matters).

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Health Update: Health Spending and the Economic Crisis , July 2009, available at <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/63/18/43305158.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD Health Data 2009: How Does Mexico Compare , 2009, available at <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/9Z38980018.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD Health Data 2009: How Does Canada Compare , 2009, available at <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/33/38979719.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD Health Data 2009: How Does the United States Compare, 2009, available at <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/2/38980580.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

The Mexican Constitution of 1917 (as amended to 2003) has two provisions regarding health and health care in its constitution. One provision establishes a “right to health protection” and sets forth what subordinate federal statutory law will authorize: “Every person has the right to health protection. The law will describe the basis and means for access to health care services and will establish the concurrence of the Federation and the federative entities in matters of public health. Boys and girls have the right to satisfy their nutrition, health, and education needs and for healthy recreation for their total development.” Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos [Constitution], as amended, Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O], art. 4, 5 de Febrero de 1917 (Mex.).

Canada Health Act, R.S.C., ch. C 6, sec. 3 (1985).

DeNavas-Walt C. Proctor B. D. Smith J. , U.S. Census Bureau, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2007 , August 2008, available at <http://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/p60–235.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Cutler D. M. , “Employee Costs and the Decline in Health Insurance Coverage,” Forum for Health Economics and Policy 6, no. 3 (2003): 23–53; Chernew M. Cutler D. M. Keenan P. S. , “Increasing Health Insurance Costs and the Decline in Insurance Coverage,” Health Services Research 40, no. 4 (2005): 1021–1039.

Collins S. R. , “Losing Ground: How the Loss of Adequate Health Insurance Is Burdening Working Families – Findings from the Commonwealth Fund Biennial Health Insurance Surveys, 2001–2007,” The Commonwealth Fund, August 2008, available at <http://www.commonwealthfund.org/Content/Publications/Fund-Reports/2008/Aug/Losing-Ground–How-the-Loss-of-Adequate-Health-Insurance-Is-Burdening-Working-Families-8212-Finding.aspx#citation> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Gruber J. McKnight R. , “Why Did Employee Health Insurance Contributions Rise?” Health Economics 22, no. 6 (2003): 1085–1104.

Kaiser Family Foundation and Health Research and Education Trust, Employer Health Benefits: 2006Annual Survey 4 , 2005, available at <http://www.kff.org/insurance/7315.cfm> (last visited October 6, 2009).

See DeNavas-Walt , supra note 29.

Social Security Amendments of 1965, 42 U.S.C. § 1395 (2005) (Medicare) and § 1396 (Medicaid).

The Balanced Budget Act of 1997, P.L. 105–33, tit. 4, 111 Stat. 275 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1397aa).

See Kaiser Family Foundation, Side-by-Side Comparison of Major Health Care Reform Proposals , 2009, available at <http://www.kff.org/healthreform/upload/healthreform_sbs_full.pdf> (last visited November 2, 2009).

Canada Health Act, R.S.C., ch. C 6, Preamble (1985).

R.S.C., ch. C 6, sec. 3 (1985). The criteria for federally funded provincial health plans pertain to “insured persons.” R.S.C., ch. C 6, secs. 10–12 (1985). Under the Act, “insured persons” are defined as residents of the province. R.S.C., ch. C 6, sec. 2 (1985).

R.S.C., sec. 5; Canada Health Act, R.S.C., ch. 17, sec. 36 (1995).

Canada Health Act , R.S.C., ch. C 6, sec. 7–12 (1985).

Flood C. M. Archibald T. , “The Illegality of Private Health Care in Canada,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 164, no. 6 (2001): 825–830 (listing the citations to the relevant federal and provincial statutes limiting or outlawing private health insurance).

[2005] 1 S.C.R. 791, 2005 SCC 35 (Canada).

Health Insurance Act , R.S.Q., ch. A 29, sec. 15 (2008); Hospital Insurance Act , R.S.Q., ch. A 28, sec. 11 (2008).

Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982, ch. 11 (U.K.).

Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, R.S.Q., ch. C 12 (2008).

See Gibson D. Fuller C. , The Bottom Line: The Truth behind Private Health Insurance in Canada (2006); Flood C. M. Roach K. Sossin L. , Access to Care, Access to Justice: The Legal Debate over Private Health Insurance in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005); Flood C. M. Xavier S. , “Health Care Rights in Canada: The Chaoulli Legacy,” Medicine and Law 27, no. 3 (2008): 617–644; Yeo M. Lucock C. , “Quality v Equality: The Divided Court in Chaoulli v Quebec,” Health Law Journal 14, no. 2 (2006): 129–150; Manfredi C. P. Maioni A. , “The Last Line of Defence for Citizens: Litigating Private Health Insurance in Chaoulli v. Quebec,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 44, no. 2 (2006): 249–270; Flood C. M. , “Chaoulli's Legacy for the Future of Canadian Health Care Policy,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 44, no. 2 (2006): 273–310; Jackman M. , “‘The Last Line of Defence for [which?] Citizens’: Accountability, Equality and the Right to Health in Chaoulli,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 44, no. 2 (2006): 349–376.

Canadian Institute for Health Information, “Health Care Spending to Reach $160 Billion This Year,” November 13, 2007, available at <http://secure.cihi.ca/cihiweb/dispPage.jsp?cw_page=media_13nov2007_e#1> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada, Building on Values: The Future of Health Care in Canada , 2002, available at <http://www.cbc.ca/healthcare/final_report.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Id., at xv-xxi.

Federal-Provincial-Territorial Council on Social Policy Renewal, A Framework to Improve the Social Union for Canadians: An Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Governments of the Provinces and Territories , February 4, 1999, <http://www.socialunion.gc.ca/news/020499_e.html> (last visited October 6, 2009).

See Deber R. B. , “Health Care Reform: Lessons from Canada,” American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 1 (2003): 20–24, at 21–22.

Evans R. , “Preserving Privilege, Promoting Profits, the Payoffs from Private Health Insurance,” in Flood C. M. Roachj K. Sossin L. , ed., Access to Care, Access to Justice: The Legal Debate over Private Health Insurance in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005).

Barraza-Llorés M. , “Addressing Inequity in Health and Health Care in Mexico,” Health Affairs 21, no. 3 (2002): 47–56.

Id., at 50 and n. 8.

Ley General de Salud [The General Law of Health], as amended, art. 18, Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 7 de Febrero de 1984 (Mex.).

Ley del Seguro Social [Social Security Act], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 21 de Diciembre de 1995 (Mex.); Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, available at <http://www.imss.gob.mx> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Ley del Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado [Law of the Institute for Security and Social Services of State Workers], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 31 de Marzo de 2007 (Mex.); Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del Estado, available at <http://www.issste.gob.mx/index2.html> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Frenk J. , “Comprehensive Reform to Improve Health System Performance in Mexico,” The Lancet 368, no. 9546 (2006): 1524–34, at 1668 fig.1.

Knaul F. M. Frenk J. , “Health Insurance in Mexico: Achieving Universal Coverage through Structural Reform,” Health Affairs 24, no. 6 (2005): 1467–1476.

Id., at 1468.

See Frenk , supra note 60.

Arredondo A. Nájera P. , “Who Pays More for Health Services in Middle-Income Countries: Lessons from Mexico,” Public Health 119, no. 2: (2005): 150–152.

Knaul F. M. , “Evidence Is Good for Your Health System: Policy Reform to Remedy Catastrophic and Impoverishing Health Spending in Mexico,” The Lancet 368, no. 9539 (2006): 1828–1841.

Ley General de Salud [The General Law of Health], as amended, art. 18, Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 7 de Febrero de 1984 (Mex).

See Frenk J. Gómez-Dantés O. Knaul F. M. , “The Democratization of Health in Mexico: Financial Innovations for Universal Coverage,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 87, no. 7 (2009): 542–548; see Frenk , supra note 60; Knaul Frenk , supra note 61. See generally Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD Review of Health Systems – Mexico (2005).

Gakidou E. , “Assessing the Effect of the 2001–06 Mexican Health Reform: An Interim Report Card,” The Lancet 368, no. 9550 (2006): 1920–1935; Lozano R. , “Benchmarking of Performance of Mexican States with Effective Coverage,” The Lancet 368, no. 9548 (2006): 1729–1741; Frenk J. , “Bridging the Divide: Global Lessons from Evidence-Based Health Policy in Mexico,” The Lancet 368, no. 9549 (2006): 954–961; González-Pier E. , “Priority Setting for Health Interventions in Mexico's System for Social Protection in Health,” The Lancet 368, no. 9673 (2006):1608–1618; Suri S. , “Health: World Looks at a Mexican Revolution,” Third World Network, October 17, 2006, available at <http://www.twnside.org.sg/title2/health.info/twninfohealth039.htm> (last visited October 6, 2009).

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 301.2.

Id., at art. 301.1.

Id., at art. 302–308.

Id., at art. 309–315.

Id., at art 301.1 and 309.1.

Id., at annex 302.3. See Shelburne R.C. , “The Staging Pattern of U.S. Tariff Reductions Under NAFTA,” in Kreinin M. , ed., Contemporary Issues in Commercial Policy (Oxford: Pergaman, 1995): at 73–81.

Id., at art. 1003.

Id., at ch. 10. See Free Trade Compliance Center, “Chapter Ten (Government Procurement) of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),” available at <http://tcc.export.gov/Trade_Agreements/Exporters_Guides/List_All_Guides/NAFTA_chapter10_guide.asp> (last visited October 6, 2009).

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 1108, para. 7; Id., at art. 1206.

Sanger M. , “Public Services,” in Cameron D. Watkins M. , eds., Canada under Free Trade (Toronto: J. Lorimer, 1993): At 191–192.

Id., at art. 1202 and 1203.

Id., at art. 1102 and 1103.

Id., at art. 1203.

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. at 1115–1138. See Kinnear M. Bjorklund A. Hannaford J. F. G. , Investment Disputes under NAFTA: An Annotated Guide to NAFTA Chapter 11, 2006.

See Cousins M. , “Health Care and Human Rights after Auton and Chaoulli,” (unpublished), available at <http://works.bepress.com/mel_cousins/7> (last visited October 6, 2009); see Gold , supra note 22, at 225–226.

See Russell F. , “NAFTA-Based Suit Threatens Canada's Medicare: Suit Seeks to Open Canadian Health Care to Privatizers,” Winnipeg Free Press, reprinted in Physicians for a National Health Program, available at <http://www.pnhp.org/news/2008/september/naftabased_suit_thr.php> (last visited October 6, 2009); website Wellsphere , “Melvin J. Howard's Determination vs Canada's Ambivalence,” November 6, 2008, available at <http://www.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/melvin-j-howard-s-determination-vs-canada-s-ambivalence/470246> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada , Dispute Settlement, NAFTA – Chapter 11 – Investment, Cases Filed against the Government of Canada, Centurion Health Corporation v. Government of Canada, available at <http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/disp-diff/centurion_archive.aspx?lang=en> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Centurion Health Corporation v. Government of Canada, Notice of Intent to Submit a Claim to Arbitration under NAFTA Chapter 11, July 11, 2008, available at <http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/NOI-MelvinHoward.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Centurion Health Corporation v. Government of Canada, Revised Amended Statement of Claim , February 2, 2009, available at <http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/CenturionvCanadaRevised.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

See Russell , supra note 85.

See Diebel L. , “Free Trade Threat to Health Care Not on Election Agenda. Why Not?” The Star website, September 18, 2008, available at <http://thestar.blogs.com/decoder/2008/09/free-trade-chal.html> (last visited October 6, 2009); Mehra N. , First Do No Harm: Lessonsfrom Ontario's Experience with For-Profit Diagnostic and Hospital Clinics , Ontario Health Coalition, 2007, available at <http://www.web.net/ohc/first%20do%20no%20harm.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Steinbrook R , “Private Health Care in Canada,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no. 16 (2006): 1661–1664.

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 1601–16. See generally Etherington D. Hawley D. L. , Hiring Professionals under NAFTA, 1998.

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 1601.

Id., at art. 1602(1).

NAFTA, Appendix 1603.D.1, Professionals: Minimum Educational Requirements and Alternative Credentials.

Martin P. Abella M. Kuptsch C. , Managing Labor Migration in the Twenty-First Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006): At 26–34.

Sutton I. , “Mexican Immigration: The Answer to our Skills Shortage?” Diversity in the Workplace, November 2007, available at <http://www.diversityintheworkplace.ca/newsletters/nov_07/nov07_article1_mexicans.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009); Passel J. D'Vera C. , “Mexican Immigrants: How Many Come? How Many Leave,” Pew Hispanic Center, 2009, available at <http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=112> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Christie L. , “The Rush to a Mexican Retirement Is On: More and More Americans Are Moving to Mexico for the Sun, the Fun, and for Less Money,” CNN Money website, April 12, 2005, available at <http://money.cnn.com/2005/04/11/retirement/mexicanretirement/> (last visited October 6, 2009); Warner D. C. Jahnke L. R. , “Toward Better Access to Health Insurance Coverage for U.S. Retirees in Mexico,” Salud Pública Mexicana 43, no. 1 (2001): 59–66.

Pub.L. 104–193, tit. IV. See Kaiser Comm'n on Medicaid and the Uninsured, Health Coverage for Immigrants (November 2004), available at <http://www.kff.org/uninsured/upload/Health-Coverage-for-Immigrants-Fact-Sheet.pdf> (last visited Oct. 16, 2009).

Mattoo A. Rathindran R. , “How Health Insurance Inhibits Trade in Health Care,” Health Affairs 25, no. 2 (2008): 358–368.

Darce K. , “Binational Insurance a New Frontier in Health Coverage,” The Paramus Post, November 27 2007, available at <http://www.paramuspost.com/article.php/20071126173148129> (last visited October 6, 2009); Warner D. , “Cross Border Health Insurance and Aging Mexicans and Mexican Americans,” in Angel J. L. Whitfield K. E. , eds., The Health of Aging Hispanics (New York: Springer, 2007): At 202–210.

See Detsky A. S. , “Canada's Health Care System – Reform Delayed,” New England Journal of Medicine 349, no. 8 (2003): 804–810; see Steinbrook , supra note 92.

See Medical Tourism Corporation, Medical Tourism – Mexico, available at <http://www.medicaltourismco.com/mexico-hospitals/medical-tourism-mexico.php> (last visited October 6, 2009); King C. , “Medical Tourism In Mexico – An Overview,” Ezine Articles, 2007, available at <http://ezinearticles.com/?Medical-Tourism-In-Mexico—An-Overvi-ewandid=585841> (last visited August 3, 2009); Shepherd K. , “American ‘Refugees’ Head to Mexico for Health Care Fleeing ‘Ailing’ U.S. System,” Newsweek, November 19, 2008, available at <http://newsbusters.org/blogs/ken-shepherd/2008/11/19/newsweek-american-refugees-head-mexico-health-care-fleeing-ailing-u-s-> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Einhorn B. , “Medical Travel Is Going to Be Part of the Solution,” Business Week (Mar. 17, 2008), available at <http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/mar2008/gb20080312_835774.htm> (last visited October 16, 2009); Einhorn B. , “Outsourcing the Patients,” Business Week (March 13, 2008), available at <http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/08_12/b4076036777780.htm> (last visited October 16, 2009).

Judkins G. , “Persistence of the U. S.-Mexico Border: Expansion of Medical-Tourism Amid Trade Liberalization,” Journal of Latin American Geography 6, no. 2: (2007): 11–32.

See Mattoo Rathindran , supra note 100.

Ramírez de Arellano A. B. , “Patients without Borders: The Emergence of Medical Tourism,” International Journal of Health Services 37, no. 1 (2007): 193–198.

Okie S. , “Immigrants and Health Care – At the Intersection of Two Broken Systems,” New England Journal of Medicine 357, no. 6 (2007): 525–529.

Camarota S. A. , Immigration From Mexico: Assessing the Impact on the United States , Center for Immigration Studies, 2001, at 44, available at <http://www.cis.org/articles/2001/mexico/mexico.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009). See also Pitkin Derose K. , “Review: Immigrants and Health Care Access, Quality, and Cost,” Medical Care Research Review 66, no. 4 (2009): 355–408; Mohanty S. A. , “Health Care Expenditures of Immigrants in the United States: A Nationally Representative Analysis,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 8 (2005): 1431–1438; Gagnon A. J. , “Responsiveness of the Canadian Health Care System towards Newcomer,” Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada, November 2002), available at <http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection/CP32-79-40-2002E.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Sontag D. , “Deported in a Coma, Saved Back in U.S.,” New York Times, November 8, 2008, at A1; Derose K. P. Escarce J. J. Lurie N. , “Immigrants and Health Care: Sources of Vulnerability,” Health Affairs 26, no. 5 (2007): 1258–1268.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Private Health Insurance in OECD Countries: The OECD Health Project, 2004.

See DeNavas-Walt Carmen , supra note 29.

See Knaul Frenk , supra note 60.

See Lara de Lauro E. , Health Insurance in Mexico: Factors to Drive Its Growth , Milliman Consultores y Actuarios, 2005, available at <http://mx.milliman.com/perspectiva/publicaciones/pdfs/Health-Insurance-in-Mexico-11-01-05.pdf> (last visited October 6, 2009).

Preker A. S. Scheffler R. M. Bassett M. C. , eds., Private Voluntary Health Insurance in Development: Friend or Foe? (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2007); Pauly M. V. , “Private Health Insurance in Developing Countries,” Health Affairs 25, no. 2 (2006): 369–374. See also Stone K. V. W. , “Flexibilization, Globalization, and Privatization: Three Challenges to Labour Rights in Our Time,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 44, no. 1 (2006): 77–104.

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at ch. 14, GATS Art.1.

Id., at Preamble.

See NAFTA, supra note 15, at art. 1101, para. 4; Id., at art. 1201, para. 3.

Id., at art. 1401, para. 3.

Id., at Preamble.

Appleton B. , “International Agreements and National Health Plan: NAFTA,” in Sullivan T. Drache D. , ed., Market Limits in Health Reform (London: Routledge, 1999): At 89–106; Gold , supra note 22.

See Diebel , supra note 90.

See Sanger , supra note 78, at 189.

Sanmartin C. , “Comparing Health and Health Care Use in Canada and the United States,” Health Affairs 25, no. 4 (2006): 1133–1142.

See Kinney , supra note 7, at 963–964 (these principles were first presented and explained in this article).