United States Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, Guideline on Infectious Disease Issues in Xenotransplantation, January 19, 2001, at 15 [hereinafter cited as Guideline].
2.
HammerC., “Comments on Ethics in Human Xenotransplantation,” in CooperD. K. C.KempE.PlattJ. L.WhiteD. J. G., eds., Xenotransplantation: The Transplantation of Organs and Tissues between Species (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1997): 766–773, at 769.
3.
DeschampsJ.-Y.RouxF. A.SaiP.GouinE., “History of Xenotransplantation,”Xenotransplantation12 (2005): 91–109, at 96.
4.
Id., at 93, Table 4.
5.
MalouinR., “Surgeons' Quest for Life: The History and the Future of Xenotransplantation,”Perspectives in Biology and Medicine37, no. 3 (1994): 416–428, at 421–423.
6.
Id.
7.
See Deschamps, supra note 3, at 98.
8.
BachF.FinebergH., “Call for Moratorium on Xenotransplants,”Nature391 (1998): 326.
9.
ChapmanL. E., “Zoonosis as a Risk to the Xenograft Recipient and to Society: Theoretical Issues,” in PlattJ., ed., Xenotransplantation (Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2001): 207–216, at 208.
10.
WeissR. A., “Retroviruses and Xenotransplantation,” in PlattJ., ed., Xenotransplantation (Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2001): 239–250, at 243.
11.
KareshW. B.CookR. A., “The Human-Animal Link,”Foreign Affairs84, no. 4 (2005): 38–50, at 41.
12.
Id.
13.
MatthewsP. J., “Zoonotic Agents: Swine to Humans,” in PlattJ., ed., Xenotransplantation (Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2001): 217–238, at 235.
14.
Id.
15.
See Guideline, supra note 1, at 14.
16.
Committee on Xenograft Transplantation: Ethical Issues and Public Policy, Division of Health Sciences Policy, Division of Health Care Services, Institute of Medicine, Xenotransplantation: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996) at 92.
17.
FishmanJ. A., “Prevention of Infection in Xenotransplantation,” in PlattJ., ed., Xenotransplantation (Washington, D.C.: ASM Press; 2001): 261–290, at 272.
18.
Id., at 276.
19.
PatienceC.TakeuchiY.WeissR. A., “Infection of Human Cells by an Endogenous Retrovirus of Pigs,”Nature Medicine3, no. 3 (1997): 282–286.
20.
See Deschamps, supra note 3, at 103.
21.
BaertschigerR. M.BuhlerL. H., “Xenotransplantation Literature Update November-December, 2004,”Xenotransplantation12 (2005): 156–160, at 157.
22.
Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Guidance for Industry: Precautionary Measures to Reduce the Possible Risk of Transmission of Zoonoses by Blood and Blood Products from Xenotransplantation Product Recipients and Their Contacts, December, 1999.
23.
Id., at 4.
24.
See Guideline, supra note 1, at 20–22, 35–38.
25.
Id., at 20.
26.
Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Guidance for Industry: Source Animal, Product, Preclinical, and Clinical Issues Concerning the Use of Xenotransplantation Products in Humans: FINAL GUIDANCE, April, 2003, i-60, at 48 [herein cited as Guidance for Industry].
27.
See Guideline, supra note 1, at 21.
28.
Id., at 35.
29.
Id., at 36.
30.
Id.
31.
Id., at 37.
32.
Id.
33.
See Guidance for Industry, supra note 26, at 49.
34.
See Guideline, supra note 1, at 21.
35.
Id.
36.
See Guidance for Industry, supra note 26, at 56.
37.
See Guideline, supra note 1, at 42.
38.
CaplanA. L., “Is Xenografting Morally Wrong?” in CaplanA. L.CoelhoD. H., eds., The Ethics of Organ Transplants (Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, 1998): 121–132, at 131.
39.
U.S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biological and Behavioral Research, The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW), Publication No. (OS) 78–0012, Appendix I, DHEW Publication No. (OS) 78–0013, Appendix II, DHEW Publication No. (OS) 78–0014, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1978.
40.
World Medical Association, “World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects,”JAMA284, no. 23 (2000): 3043–5.
41.
See Guideline, supra note 1, at 19–20.
42.
M. Sykes, A. d'Apice, and M. Sandrin on behalf of the IXA Ethics Committee, “Position Paper of the Ethics Committee of the International Xenotransplantation Association,”Transplantation78, no. 8 (2004): 1101–1107, at 1103.
43.
FlorencioP. S.RamanathanE. D., “Legal Enforcement of Xenotransplantation Public Health Safeguards,”Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics32, no. 1 (2004): 117–123, at 118.
44.
Id.
45.
CooperD. K. C.LanzaR. P., eds., XENO: The Promise of Transplanting Animal Organs into Humans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): At 217.
46.
See Florencio, supra note 43, at 119.
47.
United States Supreme Court O'Connor v. Donaldson, 422 U.S. 563 (1975).
48.
See FlorencioRamanathan, supra note 46.
49.
Id.
50.
Id.
51.
Id., at 120.
52.
SpellecyR., “Reviving Ulysses Contracts,”Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal13, no. 4 (2003): 373–392, at 375.
53.
Id., at 375; personal communication with author, January 10, 2006.
54.
Id., at 373.
55.
See Sykes, supra note 42, at 1103.
56.
See Spellecy, supra note 52, at 374.
57.
Id., at 375.
58.
BatteyJ. F., National Institutes of Health: Support for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research, paper presented at the Forum for Medical Affairs, Dallas, Texas, November, 6, 2005.