Are Dietary Intakes and Eating Behaviors Related to Childhood Obesity? A Comprehensive Review of the Evidence

Childhood Obesity, International Association for the Study of Obesity, International Obesity Taskforce, available at <http://www.iotf.org/childhoodobesity.asp> (last visited December 19, 2006); Lobstein T. Baur L. Uauy R. , “Obesity in Children and Young People: A Crisis in Public Health,” Obesity Reviews 5, Supplement 1 (2004): 4–104; Definitions of “overweight” and “obesity” vary, as does measurement. In 2000, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended using the terms “at risk for overweight” to refer to children >=85th percentile of BMI for age- and sex-specific growth curves, while “overweight” refers to those >=95th percentile of BMI. National Center for Health Statistics, CDC Growth Charts: United States. (Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control, 2000), available at <http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts> (last visited January 10, 2007). At the same time, the International Obesity Taskforce provided BMI cutpoints and recommended using the terms “overweight” and “obese” for these same cutpoints to be consistent with the adult definitions. Cole T. J. Bellizzi M. C. Flegal K. M. Dietz W. H. , “Establishing a Standard Definition for Child Overweight and Obesity Worldwide: International Survey,” British Medical Journal 320, no. 7244 (2000): 1240–1243. The studies that will be discussed in this review are inconsistent in their definition of “overweight” or “obesity,” and body fat may also be measured using different methods, including body mass index (BMI), percent body fat, skinfold thicknesses, etc. While some effort is made to define how “overweight” was measured, clearly this is not feasible to do for every study cited. Therefore, while differences in how excess body fat is measured are important methodological considerations, for the purposes of this review article the terms “overweight” and “obese” should be considered relative terms.

See Childhood Obesity, supra note 1; Lobstein , supra note 1.

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Ibid.

See Lobstein , supra note 1.

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See Dietz , supra note 7.

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See Ibid.

Nielsen , supra note 13.

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Ibid.

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See Forshee , supra note 28.

See Nielsen , supra note 29.

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See Nielsen , supra note 13.

Ibid.

See Willett , supra note 19.

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See Azizi , supra note 43.

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See Gazzaniga , supra note 48.

See Bandini , supra note 49.

See Johnson-Down , supra note 48.

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See Maffeis , supra note 49.

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See Ball , supra note 39; Grant , supra note 43; Hassapidou , supra note 52.

See Gillis , supra note 43.

See Ortega , supra note 39.

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See Guillaume , supra note 40.

See McGloin , supra note 40. Ap for trend indicates that body fat increased across the four quartiles of dietary fat intake.

See Davis , supra note 40.

See Manios , supra note 40.

See Tucker , supra note 44.

See Gazzaniga , supra not 48; Maffeis , supra note 49.

See Huang , supra note 58.

See Atkin , supra note 40.

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See Newby , supra note 41.

See Klesges , supra note 41.

Carruth B. R. Skinner J. D. , “The Role of Dietary Calcium and other Nutrients in Moderating Body Fat in Preschool Children,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 25, no. 4 (2001): 559–566.

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See Lee , supra note 69.

See Jago , supra note 41.

Skinner J. D. Bounds W. Carruth B. R. Morris M. Ziegler P. , “Predictors of Children's Body Mass Index: A Longitudinal Study of Diet and Growth in Children Aged 2–8 Y,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 28, no. 4 (2004): 476–482.

See Rolland-Cachera , “Influence of Macronutrients on Adiposity Development: A Follow Up Study of Nutrition and Growth from 10 Months to 8 Years of Age,” supra note 41.

See Magarey , supra note 41.

See Berkey , supra note 46.

See Gillis , supra note 43.

See Guillaume , supra note 40.

Ibid.

See Carruth , supra note 86.

Matsuyama T. Shoji K. Watanabe H. Shimizu M. Saotome Y. Nagao T. Matsuo N. Hase T. Tokimitsu I. Nakaya N. , “Effects of Diacylglycerol Oil on Adiposity in Obese Children: Initial Communication,” Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism 19, no. 6 (2006): 795–804.

See Grant , supra note 43.

See Ball , supra note 39.

See Ortega , supra note 39.

See Azizi , supra note 43.

See Rolland-Cachera , “Adiposity Rebound in Children: A Simple Indicator For Predicting Obesity,” supra note 41; Skinner , supra note 90.

Dietz W. H. , “Critical Periods in Childhood for the Development of Obesity,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, no. 5 (1994): 955–959.

See Carruth , supra note 86.

See Davies , supra note 40.

See Magarey , supra note 41.

See Atkin , supra not 40.

See Ball , supra note 39; Grant , supra note 43; Azizi , supra note 43.

See Kelishadi , supra note 39.

See Ortega , supra note 39.

See Hassapidou , supra note 52.

See Atkin , supra note 40; Davis , supra note 40.

Greene-Finestone L. S. Campbell M. K. Evers S. E. Gutmanis I. A. , “Adolescents' Low-carbohydrate-density Diets are Related to Poorer Dietary Intakes,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105, no. 11 (2005): 1783–1788. An Odds Ratio, or OR, estimates the odds (or risk) of obesity in one group compared to another, while the Confidence Interval, or CI, is the range of values within which we can be 95% sure that the true value for the population lies. In this case, individuals consuming a low carbohydrate density diet had a 27% increase in the odds of obesity compared to those consuming a high carbohydrate density diet, and the true risk could range from 2% to 57%. As the CI doesn't contain include a 1, the association is statistically significant (i.e., p < 0.05).

See Maillard , supra note 73.

See Guillaume , supra note 40.

See Gazzaniga , supra note 48.

See Tucker , supra note 44; Huang , supra note 58.

See Huang , supra note 58.

See Robertson , supra note 87.

See Maffeis , supra note 47; Maffeis , supra note 83.

See Rolland-Cachera , “Adiposity Rebound in Children: A Simple Indicator for Predicting Obesity,” supra note 41; Jago , supra note 41; Newby , supra note 41.

See Skinner , supra note 90.

Liu S. Willett W. C. Manson J. E. Hu F. B. Rosner B. Colditz G. , “Relation between Changes in Intakes of Dietary Fiber and Grain Products and Changes in Weight and Development of Obesity among Middle-aged Women,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78, no. 5 (2003): 920–927; Koh-Banerjee P. Franz M. Sampson L. Liu S. Jacobs D. R. Jr. Spiegelman D. Willett W. Rimm E. , “Changes in Whole-grain, Bran, and Cereal Fiber Consumption in Relation to 8-y Weight Gain among Men,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80, no. 5 (2004): 1237–1245; Bazzano L. A. Song Y. Bubes V. Good C. K. Manson J. E. Liu S. , “Dietary Intake of Whole and Refined Grain Breakfast Cereals and Weight Gain in Men,” Obesity Research 13, no. 11 (2005): 1952–1960.

Kimm S. Y. , “The Role of Dietary Fiber in the Development and Treatment of Childhood Obesity,” Pediatrics 96, no. 5 (1995): 1010–1014.

Nicklas T. A. Myers L. Berenson G. S. , “Dietary Fiber Intake of Children: The Bogalusa Heart Study,” Pediatrics 96, no. 5, pt. 2 (1995): 988–994.

See Hassapidou , supra note 52.

See Grant , supra note 43.

Hanley A. J. Harris S. B. Gittelsohn J. Wolever T. M. Saksvig B. Zinman B. , “Overweight among Children and Adolescents in a Native Canadian Community: Prevalence and Associated Factors,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, no. 3 (2000): 693–700; See “Odds Ratio,” supra note 114.

See Newby , supra note 41.

See Berkey , supra note 46.

See Guillaume , supra note 40.

See Tucker , supra note 44.

Blundell J. E. Burley V. J. , “Satiation, Satiety and the Action of Fibre on Food Intake,” International Journal of Obesity 11, Supplement 1 (1987): 9–25; Stevens J. , “Does Dietary Fiber Affect Food Intake and Body Weight?” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 88 (1988): 939–945.

See Stevens , supra note 134.

Wolever T. M. , “The Glycemic Index,” World Review of Nutrition & Dietetics 62 (1990): 120–185.

Salmeron J. Manson J. E. Stampfer M. J. Colditz G. A. Wing A. L. Willett W. C. , “Dietary Fiber, Glycemic Load, and Risk of Non-insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus in Women,” JAMA 277, no. 6 (1997): 472–477; Salmeron J. Ascherio A. Rimm E. B. Colditz G. A. Spiegelman D. Jenkins D. J. Stampfer M. J. Wing A. L. Willett W. C. , “Dietary Fiber, Glycemic Load, and Risk of NIDDM in Men,” Diabetes Care 20 no. 4 (1997): 545–550.

Pawlak D. B. Ebbeling C. B. Ludwig D. S. , “Should Obese Patients be Counseled to Follow a Low-glycaemic Index Diet? Yes,” Obesity Reviews 3, no. 4 (2002): 235–243; Raben A. , “Should Obese Patients be Counseled to Follow a Low-glycaemic Index Diet? No,” Obesity Reviews 3, no. 4 (2002): 245–256.

Scaglioni Sala M. Stival G. Giroli M. Raimondi C. Salvioni M. Radaelli G. Agostoni C. Riva E. Giovannini M. , “Dietary Glycemic Load and Macronutrient Intake in Healthy Italian Children,” Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health 17, no. 2 (2005): 88–92.

Ludwig D. S. Majzoub J. A. Al-Zahrani A. Dallal G. E. Blanco I. Roberts S. B. , “High Glycemic Index Foods, Overeating, and Obesity,” Pediatrics 103, no. 3 (1999): E26.

Ibid.

Warren J. M. Henry C. J. Simonite V. , “Low Glycemic Index Breakfasts and Reduced Food Intake in Preadolescent Children,” Pediatrics 112, no. 5 (2003): e414.

Ebbeling C. B. Leidig M. M. Sinclair K. B. Hangen J. P. Ludwig D. S. , “A Reduced-Glycemic Load Diet in the Treatment of Adolescent Obesity,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157, no. 8 (2003): 773–779.

Spieth L. E. Harnish J. D. Lenders C. M. Raezer L. B. Pereira M. A. Hangen S. J. Ludwig D. S. , “A Low-glycemic Index Diet in the Treatment of Pediatric Obesity,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 154, no. 9 (2000): 947–951.

Hui L. L. Nelson E. A. , “Meal Glycaemic Load of Normal-Weight and Overweight Hong Kong Children,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, no. 2 (2006): 220–227.

Nielsen B. M. Bjornsbo K. S. Tetens I. Heitmann B. L. , “Dietary Glycaemic Index and Glycaemic Load in Danish Children in Relation to Body Fatness,” British Journal of Nutrition 94, no. 6 (2005): 992–997.

Krebs-Smith S. M. Cook A. Subar A. F. Cleveland L. Friday J. Kahle L. L. , “Fruit and Vegetable Intakes of Children and Adolescents in the United States,” Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine 150, no. 1 (1996): 81–86.

See Kennedy , supra note 14.

See Krebs-Smith , supra note 147.

Tohill B. C. Seymour J. Serdula M. Kettel-Khan L. Rolls B. J. , “What Epidemiologic Studies Tell Us about the Relationship between Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Body Weight,” Nutrition Reviews 62, no. 10 (2004): 365–374; Lin B. H. Morrison R. M. , “Higher Fruit Consumption Linked with Lower Body Mass Index,” FoodReview 25, no. 3 (2002): 28–32.

See Lin , supra note 150.

See Kelishadi , supra note 39.

Baric I. C. Cvjetic S. Satalic Z. , “Dietary Intakes among Croatian Schoolchildren and Adolescents,” Nutrition and Health 15, no. 2 (2001): 127–138.

Violante R. del Rio Navarro B. E. Berber A. Ramirez Chanona N. Baeza Bacab M. Sienra Monge J. J. , “Obesity Risk Factors in the ISAAC (International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood) in Mexico City,” Revista Alergia México 52, no. 4 (2005): 141–145.

Hanley , supra note 129.

Newby , supra note 41.

Faith M. S. Dennison B. A. Edmunds L. S. Stratton H. H. , “Fruit Juice Intake Predicts Increased Adiposity Gain in Children from Low-income Families: Weight Status-by-environment Interaction,” Pediatrics 118, no. 5 (2006): 2066–2075.

Field A. E. Gillman M. W. Rosner B. Rockett H. R. Colditz G. A. , “Association between Fruit and Vegetable Intake and Change in Body Mass Index among a Large Sample of Children and Adolescents in the United States,” International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 27, no. 7 (2003): 821–826.

See Tohill , supra note 150; Lin , supra note 150.

Newby , supra note 41. See “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

See Violante , supra note 154.

See Hanley , supra note 129.

See Kelishadi , supra note 39.

Gibson S. A. O'Sullivan K. R. , “Breakfast Cereal Consumption Patterns and Nutrient Intakes of British Schoolchildren,” Journal of the Royal Society of Health 115, no. 6 (1995): 366–370; Albertson A. M. Anderson G. H. Crockett S. J. Goebel M. T. , “Ready-to-Eat Cereal Consumption: Its Relationship with BMI and Nutrient Intake of Children Aged 4 to 12 Years,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 12 (2003): 1613–1619; Kafatos A. Linardakis M. Bertsias G. Mammas I. Fletcher R. Bervanaki F. , “Consumption of Ready-to-Eat Cereals in Relation to Health and Diet Indicators among School Adolescents in Crete, Greece,” Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 49, no. 3 (2005): 165–172; see Barton , supra note 34.

See Gibson , supra note 164.

Ortega R. M. Requejo A. M. Lopez-Sobaler A. M. Quintas M. E. Andres P. Redondo M. R. Navia B. Lopez-Bonilla M. D. Rivas T. , “Difference in the Breakfast Habits of Overweight/Obese and Normal Weight Schoolchildren,” International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 68, no. 2 (1998): 125–132.

See Albertson , supra note 164; Kafatos , supra note 164.

See Baric , supra note 153; The Pearson correlation coefficient, or r, shows the linear correlation between two variables. In this study, a value of −0.34 indicates a weak inverse association between cereal consumption and body fat, and the association is highly significant since the p value is so small (p < 0.0001); see “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

See Kafatos , supra note 164.

See Barton , supra note 34.

Ovaskainen M. L. Reinivuo H. Tapanainen H. Hannila M. L. Korhonen T. Pakkala H. , “Snacks as an Element of Energy Intake and Food Consumption,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, no. 4 (2006): 494–501.

See Subar , supra note 26.

O'Brien T. P. Walley P. B. Anderson-Smith S. Drabman R. S. , “Naturalistic Observation of the Snack-selecting Behavior of Obese and Nonobese Children,” Addictive Behaviors 7, no. 1 (1982): 75–77.

See Hassapidou , supra note 52.

Bandini L. G. Vu D. Must A. Cyr H. Goldberg A. Dietz W. H. , “Comparison of High-calorie, Low-nutrient-dense Food Consumption among Obese and Non-Obese Adolescents,” Obesity Research 7, no. 5 (1999): 438–443.

See Hanley , supra note 129.

Phillips S. M. Bandini L. G. Naumova E. N. Cyr H. Colclough S. Dietz W. H. Must A. , “Energy-dense Snack Food Intake in Adolescence: Longitudinal Relationship to Weight and Fatness,” Obesity Research 12, no. 3 (2004): 461–472.

Field A. E. Austin S. B. Gillman M. W. Rosner B. Rockett H. R. Colditz G. A. , “Snack Food Intake does Not Predict Weight Change among Children and Adolescents,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 28, no. 10 (2004): 1210–1216.

See Philips , supra note 177.

See Newby , supra note 41.

See Kelishadi , supra note 39.

Francis L. A. Lee Y. Birch L. L. , “Parental Weight Status and Girls' Television Viewing, Snacking, and Body Mass Indexes,” Obesity Research 11, no. 1 (2003): 143–151.

Fisher J. O. Birch L. L. , “Eating in the Absence of Hunger and Overweight in Girls from 5 to 7 Y of Age,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, no. 1 (2002): 226–231.

Newby P. K. Tucker K. L. , “Empirically Derived Eating Patterns Using Factor or Cluster Analysis: A Review,” Nutrition Reviews 62, no. 5 (2004): 177–203.

Kant A. K. , “Indexes of Overall Diet Quality: A Review,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96, no. 8 (1996): 785–791.

Knol L. L. Haughton B. Fitzhugh E. C. , “Dietary Patterns of Young, Low-income U.S. Children,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105, no. 11 (2005): 1765–1773; Alexy U. Sichert-Hellert W. Kersting M. Schultze-Pawlitschko V. , “Pattern of Long-term Fat Intake and BMI during Childhood and Adolescence – Results of the DONALD Study,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 28, no. 10 (2004): 1203–1209.

See Alexy , supra note 186.

Newby P. K. Muller D. Hallfrisch J. Qiao N. Andres R. Tucker K. L. , “Dietary Patterns and Changes in Body Mass Index and Waist Circumference in Adults,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, no. 6 (2003): 1417–1425; Newby P. K. Weismayer C. Akesson A. Tucker K. L. Wolk A. , “Longitudinal Changes in Food Patterns Predict Changes in Weight and Body Mass Index and the Effects are Greatest in Obese Women,” Journal of Nutrition 136, no. 10 (2006): 2580–2587; Quatromoni P. A. Copenhafer D. L. D'Agostino R. B. Millen B. E. , “Dietary Patterns Predict the Development of Overweight in Women: The Framingham Nutrition Studies,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102, no. 9 (2002): 1239–1246.

Hyams J. S. Etienne N. L. Leichtner A. M. Theuer R. C. , “Carbohydrate Malabsorption Following Fruit Juice Ingestion in Young Children,” Pediatrics 82, no. 1 (1988): 64–68.

Smith M. M. Davis M. Chasalow F. I. Lifshitz F. , “Carbohydrate Absorption from Fruit Juice in Young Children,” Pediatrics 95, no. 3 (1995): 340–344.

American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition, “On the Feeding of Supplemental Foods to Infants,” Pediatrics 65 (1980): 1178–1180.

American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition, “The Use of Fruit Juice in the Diets of Young Children,” AAP News 7 (1991): 2.

American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition, “The Use and Misuse of Fruit Juice in Pediatrics,” Pediatrics 107, no. 5 (2001): 1210–1213.

Dennison B. A. Rockwell H. L. Baker S. L. , “Excess Fruit Juice Consumption by Preschool-aged Children is Associated with Short Stature and Obesity,” Pediatrics 99, no. 1 (1997): 15–22.

Smith M. M. Lifshitz F. , “Excess Fruit Juice Consumption as a Contributing Factor in Nonorganic Failure to Thrive,” Pediatrics 93, no. 3 (1994): 438–443.

Dennison B. A. Rockwell H. L. Nichols M. J. Jenkins P. , “Children's Growth Parameters Vary by Type of Fruit Juice Consumed,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 18, no. 4 (1999): 346–352. Like BMI, the ponderal index, or PI, calculated as weight in kg/height³ or length³ in m, is a measure that may be used to estimate adiposity. It is often used to estimate body fat in infants and young children.

Riddick H. Kramer-LeBlanc C. Bowman S. A. Davis C. , “Is Fruit Juice Dangerous for Children?” Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, available at <http://www.usda.gov/fcs/cnpp.htm> (last visited August 1, 1998).

Kloeblen-Tarver A. S. , “Fruit Juice Consumption Not Related to Growth Among Preschool-aged Children Enrolled in the WIC Program (letter to the editor),” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 9 (2001): 996.

Tanasescu M. Ferris A. M. Himmelgreen D. A. Rodriguez N. Perez-Escamilla R. , “Biobehavioral Factors are Associated with Obesity in Puerto Rican Children,” Journal of Nutrition 130, no. 7 (2000): 1734–1742; see “Odds Ratio” and “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

Skinner J. D. Carruth B. R. Moran J. 3rd Houck K. Coletta F. , “Fruit Juice Intake is Not Related to Children's Growth,” Pediatrics 103, no. 1 (1999): 58–64; see “Ponderal index,” supra note 196.

Alexy U. Sichert-Hellert W. Kersting M. Manz F. Schoch G. , “Fruit Juice Consumption and the Prevalence of Obesity and Short Stature in German Preschool Children: Results of the DONALD Study. Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometrical Longitudinally Designed,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology & Nutrition 29, no. 3 (1999): 343–349.

Skinner J. D. Carruth B. R. , “A Longitudinal Study of Children's Juice Intake and Growth: The Juice Controversy Revisited,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101, no. 4 (2001): 432–437.

Newby P. K. Peterson K. E. Berkey C. Gardner J. Leppert J. Willett W. Colditz G. , “Beverage Consumption is Not Related to Changes in Weight and Body Mass among Low-income Preschool Children in North Dakota,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, no. 7 (2004): 1086–1094.

O'Connor T. M. Yang S. J. Nicklas T. A. , “Beverage Intake among Preschool Children and its Effect on Weight Status,” Pediatrics 118, no. 4 (2006): e1010–1018.

See Field , supra note 158.

See Faith , supra note 157.

Ibid.

American Academy of Pediatrics, supra note 193.

Ludwig D. S. Peterson K. E. Gortmaker S. L. , “Relation Between Consumption of Sugar-sweetened drinks and Childhood Obesity: A Prospective, Observational Analysis,” Lancet 357 (2001): 505–508; see “Odds Ratio” and “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

Mattes R. D. , “Dietary Compensation by Humans for Supplemental Energy Provided as Ethanol or Carbohydrate in Fluids,” Physiology & Behavior 59, no. 1 (1996): 179–187; DiMeglio D. P. Mattes R. D. , “Liquid Versus Solid Carbohydrate: Effects on Food Intake and Body Weight,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 24, no. 6 (2000): 794–800.

Birch L. L. Deysher M. , “Conditioned and Unconditioned Caloric Compensation: Evidence for Self-Regulation of Food Intake in Young Children,” Learning & Motivation 16, no. 3 (1985): 341–355.

Harnack L. Stang J. Story M. , “Soft Drink Consumption among U.S. Children and Adolescents: Nutritional Consequences,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 99 no. 4 (1999): 436–441; Nielse , supra note 29.

See Ibid.

See Newby , supra note 203; O'Connor , supra note 204.

Welsh J. A. Cogswell M. E. Rogers S. Rockett H. Mei Z. Grummer-Strawn L. M. , “Overweight among Low-income Preschool Children Associated with the Consumption of Sweet Drinks: Missouri, 1999–2002,” Pediatrics, 115, no. 2 (2005): e223–229.

Ibid; see “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

Mrdjenovic G. Levitsky D. A. , “Nutritional and Energetic Consequences of Sweetened Drink Consumption in 6- to 13- Year-Old Children,” Journal of Pediatrics 142, no. 6 (2003): 604–610.

Novotny R. Daida Y. G. Acharya S. Grove J. S. Vogt T. M. , “Dairy Intake is Associated with Lower Body Fat and Soda Intake with Greater Weight in Adolescent Girls,” Journal of Nutrition 134, no. 8 (2004): 1905–1909; Tam C. S. Garnett S. P. Cowell C. T. Campbell K. Cabrera G. Baur L. A. , “Soft Drink Consumption and Excess Weight Gain in Australian School Students: Results from the Nepean Study,” International Journal of Obesity (London) 30, no. 7 (2006): 1091–1093; Giammattei J. Blix G. Marshak H. H. Wollitzer A. O. Pettitt D. J. , “Television Watching and Soft Drink Consumption: Associations with Obesity in 11- to 13-Year-Old Schoolchildren,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157, no. 9 (2003): 882–886.

See Novotny , supra note 218; Forshee , supra note 28.

Bell A. C. Kremer P. J. Magarey A. M. Swinburn B. A. , “Contribution of ‘Noncore’ Foods and Beverages to the Energy Intake and Weight Status of Australian Children,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, no. 5 (2005): 639–645.

Nicklas T. A. Yank S.-J. Baranowski T. Zakeri I. Berenson G. S. , “Eating Patterns and Obesity in Children: The Bogalusa Heart Study,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25, no. 1 (2003): 9–16.

Berkey C. S. Rockett H. R. Field A. E. Gillman M. W. Colditz G. A. , “Sugar-added Beverages and Adolescent Weight Change,” Obesity Research 12, no. 5 (2004): 778–788.

See Phillips , supra note 177.

Zemel M. B. Shi H. Greer B. Dirienzo D. Zemel P. C. , “Regulation of Adiposity by Dietary Calcium,” FASEB Journal 14, no. 9 (2000): 1132–1138; Zemel M. , “Calcium Modulation of Adiposity,” Obesity Research 11, no. 3 (2003): 375–376.

Zemel M. B. , “Mechanisms of Dairy Modulation of Adiposity,” Journal of Nutrition 133, no. 1 (2003): 252S–256S; Zemel M. B. , “The Role of Dairy Foods in Weight Management,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 24, No. 6 Supplement (2005): 537S–546S.

Remesar X. Tang V. Ferrer E. Torregrosa C. Virgili J. Masanes R. M. Fernandez-Lopez J. A. Alemany M. , “Estrone in Food: A Factor Influencing the Development of Obesity?,” European Journal of Nutrition 38, no. 5 (1999): 247–253.

See Tanasescu , supra note 199.

Barba G. Troiano E. Russo P. Venezia A. Siani A. , “Inverse Association between Body Mass and Frequency of Milk Consumption in Children,” British Journal of Nutrition 93, no. 1 (2005): 15–19; see Baric , supra note 153.

See Barba , supra note 228.

Venti C. A. Tataranni P. A. Salbe A. D. , “Lack of Relationship between Calcium Intake and Body Size in an Obesity-prone Population,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105, no. 9 (2005): 1401–1407.

See Dennison , supra note 190.

See Faith , supra note 153; Alexy , supra note 197; O'Connor , supra note 200; Newby , supra note 203.

Phillips S. M. Bandini L. G. Cyr H. Colclough-Douglas S. Naumova E. Must A. , “Dairy Food Consumption and Body Weight and Fatness Studied Longitudinally over the Adolescent Period,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 27, no. 9 (2003): 1106–1113.

Skinner J. D. Bounds W. Carruth B. R. Ziegler P. , “Longitudinal Calcium Intake is Negatively Related to Children's Body Fat Indexes,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 12 (2003): 1626–1631.

See Carruth , supra note 86.

Berkey C. S. Rockett H. R. Willett W. C. Colditz G. A. , “Milk, Dairy Fat, Dietary Calcium, and Weight Gain: A Longitudinal Study of Adolescents,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 159, no. 6 (2005): 543–550.

Lorenzen J. K. Molgaard C. Michaelsen K. F. Astrup A. , “Calcium Supplementation for 1 Y Does Not Reduce Body Weight or Fat Mass in Young Girls,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83, no. 1 (2006): 18–23.

See, for example: Cadogan J. Eastell R. Jones N. Barker M. E. , “Milk Intake and Bone Mineral Acquisition in Adolescent Girls: Randomised, Controlled Intervention Trial,” British Medical Journal 315, no. 7118 (1997): 1255–1260; Chan G. M. Hoffman K. McMurry M. , “Effects of Dairy Products on Bone and Body Composition in Pubertal Girls,” Journal of Pediatrics 126, no. 4 (1995): 551–556.

Dixon L. B. Pellizzon M. A. Jawad A. F. Tershakovec A. M. , “Calcium and Dairy Intake and Measures of Obesity in Hyper- and Normocholesterolemic Children,” Obesity Research 13, no. 10 (2005): 1727–1738.

Moreira P. Padez C. Mourao I. Rosado V. , “Dietary Calcium and Body Mass Index in Portuguese Children,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, no. 7 (2005): 861–867; see Forshee , supra note 32.

See Novotny , supra note 218.

Zemel M. B. , “Role of Calcium and Dairy Products in Energy Partitioning and Weight Management,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79, no. 5 (2004): 907S–912S; Trowman R. Dumville J. C. Hahn S. Torgerson D. J. , “A Systematic Review of the Effects of Calcium Supplementation on Body Weight,” British Journal of Nutrition 95, no. 6 (2006): 1033–1038; Heaney R. P. Davies K. M. Barger-Lux M. J. , “Calcium and Weight: Clinical Studies,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 21, no. 2 (2002): 152S–155S; Davies K. M. Heaney R. P. Recker R. R. Lappe J. M. Barger-Lux M. J. Rafferty K. Hinders S. , “Calcium Intake and Body Weight,” The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 85, no. 12 (2000): 4635–4638; Harkness L. S. Bonny A. E. , “Calcium and Vitamin D Status in the Adolescent: Key Roles for Bone, Body Weight, Glucose Tolerance, and Estrogen Biosynthesis,” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 18, no. 5 (2005): 305–311.

The question of “why” children choose to eat what they do is of course of paramount interest in the study of diet and obesity, as understanding why people make food choices is at the cornerstone of changing behavior. This is a topic of study unto itself.

Lin B.-H. Frazao E. Guthrie J. , “Away-from-home Foods Increasingly Important to Quality of American Diet.” (Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service/USDA, January 1999, AIB–749).

Bowman S. A. Gortmaker S. L. Ebbeling C. B. Pereira M. A. Ludwig D. S. , “Effects of Fast-food Consumption on Energy Intake and Diet Quality among Children in a National Household Survey,” Pediatrics 113, no. 1, pt. 1 (2004): 112–118; Paeratakul S. Ferdinand D. P. Champagne C. M. Ryan D. H. Bray G. A. , “Fast-food Consumption among U.S. Adults and Children: Dietary and Nutrient Intake Profile,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 10 (2003): 1332–1338; Schmidt M. Affenito S. G. Striegel-Moore R. Khoury P. R. Barton B. Crawford P. Kronsberg S. Schreiber G. Obarzanek E. Daniels S. , “Fast-food Intake and Diet Quality in Black and White Girls: The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 159, no. 7 (2005): 626–631.

Ebbeling C. B. Sinclair K. B. Pereira M. A. Garcia-Lago E. Feldman H. A. Ludwig D. S. , “Compensation for Energy Intake from Fast Food among Overweight and Lean Adolescents,” JAMA 291, no. 23 (2004): 2828–2833.

Gillis L. J. Bar-Or O. , “Food Away from Home, Sugar-sweetened Drink Consumption and Juvenile Obesity,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 22, no. 6 (2003): 539–545.

Nicklas T. A. Morales M. Linares A. Yang S. J. Baranowski T. De Moor C. Berenson G. , “Children's Meal Patterns have Changed over a 21-year Period: The Bogalusa Heart Study,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, no. 5 (2004): 753–761.

See Huang , supra note 58.

See Kelishadi , supra note 39.

See Violante , supra note 154.

French S. A. Story M. Neumark-Sztainer D. Fulkerson J. A. Hannan P. , “Fast Food Restaurant Use among Adolescents: Associations with Nutrient Intake, Food Choices and Behavioral and Psychosocial Variables,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 25, no. 12 (2001): 1823–1833.

Taveras E. M. Berkey C. S. Rifas-Shiman S. L. Ludwig D. S. Rockett H. R. Field A. E. Colditz G. A. Gillman M. W. , “Association of Consumption of Fried Food Away from Home with Body Mass Index and Diet Quality in Older Children and Adolescents,” Pediatrics 116, no. 4 (2005): E518–524; A beta coefficient, or P, quantifies the change in the independent variable for a given unit change in the dependent variable. In this case, a 0.21 greater increase in BMI was observed among those consuming fried food compared with those not consuming fried food, and the effect may range from 0.03 to 0.39; see “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

Thompson O. M. Ballew C. Resnicow K. Must A. Bandini L. G. Cyr H. Dietz W. H. , “Food Purchased Away from Home as a Predictor of Change in BMI z-score among Girls,” International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders 28, no. 2 (2004): 282–289.

Ibid.

Rampersaud G. C. Pereira M. A. Girard B. L. Adams J. Metzl J. D. , “Breakfast Habits, Nutritional Status, Body Weight, and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105, no. 5 (2005): 743–760; Pollitt E. Mathews R. , “Breakfast and Cognition: An Integrative Summary,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67, no. 4 (1998): 804S–813S.

See Pollitt , supra note 256.

Zullig K. Ubbes V. A. Pyle J. Valois R. F. , “Self-Reported Weight Perceptions, Dieting Behavior, and Breakfast Eating among High School Adolescents,” Journal of School Health 76, no. 3 (2006): 87–92; Neumark-Sztainer D. Hannan P. J. Story M. Croll J. Perry C. , “Family Meal Patterns: Associations with Sociodemographic Characteristics and Improved Dietary Intake among Adolescents,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 3 (2003): 317–322; see Bellisle , supra note 40; Azizi , supra note 43; Ortega , supra note 166.

Summerbell C. D. Moody R. C. Shanks J. Stock M. J. Geissler C. , “Relationship between Feeding Pattern and Body Mass Index in 220 Free-living People in Four Age Groups,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50, no. 8 (1996): 513–519.

See Rampersaud , supra note 256.

See Affenito , supra note 34.

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See Azizi , supra note 43.

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See Nicklas , supra note 248.

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See Huang , supra note 58.

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See Nicklas , supra note 221; see “Odds Ratio” and “Confidence Interval,” supra note 114.

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See Maffeis , supra note 83.

See Azizi , supra note 43; see “Pearson Correlation Coefficient,” supra note 168.

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See Gillman , supra note 278; Neumark-Sztainer , supra note 258.

See Videon , supra note 278.

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See Nielsen , supra note 146.

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See Livingstone , “Measurement of Dietary Intake in Children,” supra note 284

See Huang , supra note 58.

See Maffeis , supra note 83.

See Maffeis , supra note 11.

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See Dietz , supra note 104.

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