Closing the Organ Gap: A Reciprocity-Based Social Contract Approach

Current data on waiting lists in the United States, available through <http://www.optn.org> (last visited January 17, 2006).

Sheehy E. Conrad S. L. Brigham L. E. , “Estimating the Number of Potential Organ Donors in The United States,” New Eng. J. Med. 349 (2003): 667–674.

Eggers P. W. , “Medicare End Stage Renal Disease Program,” Health Care Financing Review 22 (2000): 55–60; United States Renal Data System, at <http://www.usrds.org/2004/ref/K_tables_04.pdf> (last visited January 17, 2006).

Waiting list data, supra note 1.

The Organ Donation Breakthrough Collaborative: Best Practices Final Report , September 2003, at <http://www.organdonor.gov/bestpractice.htm> (last visited January 17, 2006).

Organ Donation and Recovery Improvement Act, P.L. 108–216, section 8.

Strategies for Cadaveric Organ Procurement, “Mandated Choice and Presumed Consent,” Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs Report, JAMA 272 (1994): 809–812, available at <http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/8446.html> (last visited January 17, 2006).

Both Texas and Virginia have tried mandated choice with disappointing results. In Texas, 80% of those forced to make a choice said no. See Siminoff L. A. and Mercer M. B. , “Public Policy, Public Opinion, and Consent for Organ Donation,” Cambridge Quarterly Healthcare Ethics 10 (2001): 377–86. When Virginia adopted a policy of mandated choice, only 31% committed to donation. See Klassen A. C. and Klassen D. K. , “Who Are the Donors in Organ Donation? The Family's Perspective in Mandated Choice,” Annals of Internal Medicine 125 (1996): 70–73.

Childress J. F. , “The Failure to Give: Reducing Barriers to Organ Donation,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 11 (2001): 1–16; Chouhan P. and Draper H. , “Modified Mandated Choice for Organ Procurement,” Journal of Medical Ethics 29 (2003):157–162. Based on concerns about the actual effects of mandated choice on donation, The AMA recently updated and revised its opinion on mandated choice, supporting “properly designed pilot studies,” while discouraging widespread implementation in the absence of “data that suggest a positive effect on donation.” Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs (CEJA), American Medical Association. 1995. Presumed Consent and Mandated Choice for Organs from Deceased Donors, Opinion 4–I-05, rescinding and modifying Opinion E-2.155, supra, note 8.

Epstein R. , Mortal Peril: Our Inalienable Right to Health Care? (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books, 1997): at 249–261; Veatch R. M. , “Why Liberals Should Accept Financial Incentives for Organ Procurement,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 13 (2003): 19–36; Cohen L. R. , “Increasing the Supply of Transplant Organs: The Virtues of a Futures Market,” George Washington Law Review 58 (1989): 1–51; Steinberg D. , “An ‘Opting In’ Paradigm for Kidney Transplantation,” American Journal of Bioethics 4 (2004): 4–14.

See Childress, supra note 10; Delmonico F. L. Robert A. Schper-Hughes N. , “Ethical Incentives – Not Payment – for Organ Donors,” New Eng. J. Med. 346 (2002): 2002–2005.

The National Organ Transplant Act, 42 U.S.C. § 273–274 (P.L. 98–507).

Harris J. , The Value of Life (London: Routledge, 1985): at 118–19.

Etzioni A. , “Organ Donation: A Communitarian Approach,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 13 (2003): 1–18.

Eaton S. , “The Subtle Politics of Organ Donation: A Proposal,” Journal of Medical Ethics 24 (1998): 166–170; Muyskens J. , “Should Receiving Depend Upon Willingness to Give?” Transplantation Proceedings 24 (1992): 2181–2184; Schwindt R. Vining A. , “Proposal for a Mutual Insurance Pool for Transplant Organs,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy & Law 23 (1998): 725–741; Undis D. J. , “Life Sharers: Increasing Organ Supply Through Directed Donation,” American Journal of Bioethics 5, no. 4 (2005): 22–24.

See supra note 1.

See Sheehy , supra note 2.

Greer J. W. , “End-Stage Renal Disease and Medicare,” Health Care Financing Review 24 (2003): 1–5; Mendeloff J. Ko K. Roberts M. S. Byrne M. Dew M. A. , “Procuring Organ Donors as a Health Investment: How Much should we be Willing to Spend?” Transplantation 78 (2004): 1704–10.

USRDS (U.S. Renal data System), 2005, Annual Data Report at <http://www.usrds.org/adr.htm> (last visited February 6, 2006).

See Eggers , supra note 3; Etzioni , supra note 15; Mates A. J. and Schnitzler M. , “Payment for Living Donors (Vendor) Kidneys: A Cost-Effective Analysis,” American Journal of Transplantation 4 (2003): 216–221.

See Mendeloff , supra note 19.

Institute of Medicine, Organ Procurement and Transplantation: Assessing Current Policies and the Potential Impact of the DHHS Final Rule (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999): at 131.

Department of Health and Human Services, Organ Donor Registries: A Useful, but Limited, Tool, available at <http://www.organdonor.gov/oigdonorregistries.pdf> (last visited January 20, 2006).

See Sheehy , supra note 2; Ploeg R. J. Niesing J. Sieber-Rasch M. H. , “Shortage of Donation Despite an Adequate Number of Donors: A Professional Attitude?” Transplantation 76 (2003): 948–955.

See supra note 24; The Gallup Organization, Inc., “The American Public's Attitude Towards Organ Donation and Transplantation,” available at <http://www.transweb.org/reference/articles/gallup_survey/gallup_index.html> (last visited January 20, 2006).

Johnson E. J. and Goldstein D. , “Do Default Save Lives?” Science 302 (2003): 1338–1339; Sunstein C. R. Thaler R. H. , “Libertarian Paternalism is not an Oxymoron,” University of Chicago Law Review 70 (2003): 1159–1202.

Id.; Abadie A. Gay S. , “The Impact of Presumed Consent Legislation on Cadaveric Organ Donation: A Cross Country Study,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 10604, July 2004, available at <http://www.nber.org/papers/W10604> (last visited January 20, 2006).

See supra note 8; Johnson , supra note 27; Sunstein , supra note 27.

See Sheehy , supra note 2; supra note 8; Sade R. M. Kay N. Pitzer S. Drake P. Baligna P. Haines S. , “Increasing Organ Donation: A Successful New Concept,” Transplantation 74 (2002): 1142–46.; Siminoff L. A. Gordon N. Hewlett J. Arnold R. M. , “Factors Influencing Families' Consent for Donation of Solid Organs for Transplantation,” JAMA 286 (2001): 71–7; Ashkenazi T. Berman M. Ami Ben S. Fadila A. Aravot D. , “A Bridge Between Hearts: Mutual Organ Donation by Arabs and Jews in Israel,” Transplantation 77 (2004): 151–5.

Siegal G. and Bonnie R. J. , “Reflections on Fairness in UNOS Allocation Policies,” American Journal of Bioethics 5, no. 4 (2005): 28–29.

See supra note 8; Etzioni , supra note 15; Veatch R. M. , “The Myth of Presumed Consent: Ethical Problems in Organ Procurement Strategies,” Transplantation Proceedings 27 (1995): 1888–92.

Siminoff L. A. Lawrence R. H. Arnold R. M. , “Comparison of Black and White Families' Experiences and Perceptions Regarding Organ Donation Requests,” Critical Care Medicine 31 (2003): 146–51.

See Sheehy , supra note 2; Abadie , supra note 28; Wendler D. Dickert N. , “The Consent Process for Cadaveric Organ Procurement: How does it Work? Can it be Improved?” JAMA 285 (2001): 329–333.

See Wendler , supra note 36.

40. UAGA, 8A U.L.A. § 2(h) (1987).

See Wendler , supra note 36; Capron A. M. , “Reexamining Organ Transplantation,” JAMA 285 (2001): 334–336.

See supra note 5.

Hodge J. G. Gostin L. O. , “School Vaccination Requirements: Historical, Social and Legal Perspectives,” Kentucky Law Journal 90 (2001–2002): 831–890.

See Siminoff , supra note 34; Capron , supra note 39.

See Mendeloff , supra note 19.