Forensic Epidemiology: Law at the Intersection of Public Health and Criminal Investigations

Stross J.K. Shasby D.M. Harlan W.R. , “An Epidemic of Mysterious Cardiopulmonary Arrests,” N Engl J Med 295 (1976):1107–1110.

Butler J.C. Cohen M.L. Friedman C.R. , “Collaboration Between Public Health and Law Enforcement: New Paradigms and Partnerships for Bioterrorism Planning and Response,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8 (2002):1152–1156.

U.S. House Armed Services Committee, Hearing on Chemical and Biological Weapons, 20 October 1999. (Washington; Government Printing Office, 1999); Altman L.K. Kolata G. , “A Nation Challenged: Anthrax - Anthrax Missteps Offer Guide to Fight Next Bioterror Battle,” New York Times. January 6, 2002: A1.

Moscoso E. , “West Nile Outbreak not Terrorism, Experts Say — Officials Dismiss Bioweapons Theory,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution. September 14, 2002: A5.

Model State Emergency Health Powers Act. December 21, 2001. Available at http://www.publichealthlaw.net. (last visited June 27, 2003); Gostin L.O. Sapsin J.W. Teret S.P. “The Model State Emergency Health Powers Act: Planning for and Response to Bioterrorism and Naturally Occurring Infectious Diseases”. JAMA 288 (2002): 622–628; Annas G.J. , “Bioterrorism, Public Health, and Civil Liberties,” N Engl J Med 346 (2002): 1337–1342.

Loue S. , Forensic Epidemiology: A Comprehensive Guide for Legal and Epidemiology Professionals (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999).

Alibek K. Handelman S. , Biohazard (New York: Random House, 1999): Pp. x.

U.S. House, supra note 3.

Altman , supra note 3.

Last J.M. , A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

Gove P.B. , ed. Webster's Third New International Dictionary (Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1976).

Last, supra note 10.

American Academy of Microbiology, Microbial Forensics: A Scientific Assessment. Available at http://www.asmusa.org/acasrc/aca1.htm. (last visited June 27, 2003).

Stross , supra note 1. See also Blaser M.J. Jason J.M. Weniger B.G. “Epidemiologic Analysis of a Cluster of Homicides of Children in Atlanta,” JAMA 251(1984): 3255–3258; Buehler J.W. Smith L.F. Wallace E.M. “Unexplained Deaths in a Children's Hospital: An Epidemiologic Assessment,” N Engl J Med 313 (1985): 211–216; Istre G.R. Gustafson T.L. Baron R.C. “A Mysterious Cluster of Deaths and Cardio Pulmonary Arrests in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit”. N Engl J Med 313 (1985): 205–211; Sacks J.J. Herndon J.L. Lieb S.H. “A Cluster of Unexplained Deaths in a Nursing Home in Florida,” American Journal of Public Health 78 (1988):806–808; Torok T.J. Tauxe R.V. Wise P.R. “A Large Community Outbreak of Salmonellosis Caused by Intentional Contamination of Restaurant Salad Bars,” JAMA 278 (1997): 389–395; Sacks J.J. Stroup D.F. Will M.W. “A Nurse-Associated Epidemic of Cardiac Arrests in an Intensive Care Unit,” JAMA 259 (1988):689–695; Franks A. Sacks J.J. Smith J.D. “A Cluster of Unexplained Cardiac Arrests in a Surgical Intensive Care Unit” Critical Care Medicine 15 (1987):1075–1076. See also personal communication from Adele L. Franks, M.D. to Richard A. Goodman, M.D., on June 6, 2003. For examples from case law, see Rachals v. State, 184 Ga. App. 420 (1987) and Rachals v. State, 258 Ga. 48 (1988). For examples from the press, see Galloway J. , “Albany Hospital Quick to Spot Cardiac Arrest Mystery”. Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution, March 22, 1986: A1, A4; Beasley D. , “Albany Nurse Acquitted in 6 Killings,” Atlanta Constitution, September 26, 1986: A1, A12; Palmer P. , “Appeals Court Upholds Nurse Rachals' Assault Conviction,” Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution, September 12, 1987:E1; Kolavic S.A. Kimura A. Simons S.L. “An Outbreak of Shigella dysenteria Type 2 Among Laboratory Workers Due to Intentional Food Contamination,” JAMA 278 (1997):396–398; Scott S. , Ex-Hospital Lab Worker Indicted: She's Accused of Tainting Muffins, Doughnuts that made Co-workers Ill,” Dallas Morning News , August 29, 1997: A-28 and Buchholz U. Mermin J. Rios R. “An Outbreak of Food-Borne Illness Associated with Methomyl-Contaminated Salt,” JAMA 288 (2002):604–610. Finnaly, see also Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Ongoing Investigation of Anthrax – Florida, October 2001,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 20 (2001): 877 and Jernigan D.B. Raghunathan P.L. Bell B.P. “Investigation of Bioterrorism-Related Anthrax, United States, 2001: Epidemiologic Findings,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8 (2002); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Nicotine Poisoning After Ingestion of Contaminated Ground Beef – Michigan, 2003,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52 (2003):413–416.

Stross , supra note 1.

Torok , supra note 14.

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 20 (2001), supra note 14; Jernigan D.B. , supra note 14.

Stross , supra note 1.

Stross , supra note 1.

Stross , supra note 1.

Buehler , supra note 14; Istre , supra note 14; Sacks , “A Cluster of Unexplained Deaths in a Nursing Home in Florida,” supra note 14; Sacks , “A Cluster of Unexplained Cardiac Arrests in a Surgical Intensive Care Unit,” supra note 14. Franks, supra note 14; Personal communication from Franks, supra note 14; Rachals v. State, supra note 14; Rachals v. State, supra note 14; Galloway , supra note 14; Beasley , supra note 14.

Palmer, supra note 14; Franks, supra note 14; Personal communication from Franks, supra note 14; Rachals v. State, supra note 14; Rachals v. State, supra note 14; Galloway, supra note 14; Beasley, supra note 14.

Rachals v. State, supra note 14; Rachals v. State, supra note 14; Galloway, supra note 14; Beasley, supra note 14; Palmer, supra note 14.

Torok , supra note 14.

Buchholz , supra note 14.

Torok , supra note 14.

18 U.S.C. § 175; 18 U.S.C. § 178; 18 U.S.C. § 2332a.

American Academy of Microbiology, supra note 13.

Buchholz , supra note 14.

18 U.S.C. § 175, supra note 27;18 U.S.C. § 178, supra note 27; 18 U.S.C. § 2332a, supra note 27.

Lazzarini Z. Bray S. Burris S. , “Evaluating the Impact of Criminal Laws on HIV Risk Hehavior,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30 (2002): 239–255.

Lazzarini , supra note 31.

Smith R. , “S.D. Gay Couple Faces Prison for Exposing Others to HIV: ACLU Urges “Caution” in Prosecutions when Infection not yet Proven,” Washington Blade, May 24, 2002.

“CDC Joins HIV Investigation in NY,” United Press Internationl, Thursday, October 30, 1997, <http://www.aegis.com?news/upi/1997/UP971019.html> (last visited June 25, 2003).

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Cluster of HIV-Positive Young Women – New York, 1997–1998,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48 (1999): 413–416.

Lazzarini , supra note 31.

Richardson L. , “Man Faces Felony Charge of Exposing Girl to H.I.V,” New York Times, August 20, 1998: B3; NY Penal Code sec. 120.25, Reckless Endangerment in the First Degree.

New York State Bill # A04787 creates the crime of reckless endangerment of the public health for recklessly transmitting HIV/AIDS, available at http://assembly.state.ny.us/leg/?bn=A04787 (last visited November 12, 2003).

New York Public Health Law, §§ 2780–2787 (1999).

U.S. v. Moore, 846 F.2d 1163 (8^th Cir. 1988).

U.S. v. Moore, supra note 40.

South Dakota Statutes § 22-18-31.

Napolitano J. , “South Dakota: Jail Term for H.I.V. Exposure,” New York Times, August 30, 2002: A15.

Smith , supra note 33; Markus M. , “A Treatment for the Disease: Criminal HIV Transmission/Exposure Laws,” Nova Law Review, 875:23 (Spring, 1999).

South Dakota, Legislative tracking, available at: http://legis.state.sd.us/sessions/2003/1019.htm (last visited November 12, 2003).

South Dakota House Judiciary Committee Hearing, Testimony of Doneen Hollingsworth, Secretary of Health, South Dakota Department of Public Health, January 24, 2003 available at http://legis.state.sd.us/sessions/2003/1019.htm (last visited November 12, 2003); audio testimony–available at http://lightning.state.sd.us:8080/ramgen/78session/hju08hb1019a.rm (last visited November 12, 2003 and also on file with author; referenced portion from time stamp 3:18 to 3:45).

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Forensic Epidemiology: Joint Training for Law Enforcement and Public Health on Investigative Responses to Bioterrorism, Course Managers' Guide. 2003.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 14; Jernigan , supra note 14.

Torok , supra note 14.

Contents of Letter to Sen. Daschle released by FBI on Oct. 23, 2001; for an image of the letter, see <www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/102301.htm> (last visited November 12, 2003).

Torok , supra note 14.

U.S. Constitution, Amendment IV.

U.S. Constitution, Amendment V.

Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523 (1967).

Frank v. Maryland, 259 U.S. 360 (1959).

Camara v. Municipal Court, supra note 54; See v. City of Seattle, 387 U.S. 541 (1967).

U.S. Constitution, supra note 52.

O'Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709 (1987).

Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383 (1914); Gouled v. United States, 255 U.S. 298 (1921).

Christensen D.A. , “Warrantless Administrative Searches Under Environmental Laws: The Limits to EPA Inspectors' Statutory Invitation. Environmental Law, 1019 (1996):26.

Camara v. Municipal Court, supra note 54.

Michigan v. Clifford, 464 U.S. 287 (1984).

Michigan v. Clifford, supra note 62.

United States v. Branson, 21 F.3d 113 (1994).

Wooster Ann K. , Annotation, Validity of Warrantless Administrative Inspection of Business that is Allegedly Closely or Pervasively Regulated: Cases Decided Since Colonnade Catering Corp. v. U.S., 182 A.L.R. Fed. 467 (2002).

Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573 (1980); New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691 (1987); Michigan v. Tyler, 436 U.S. 499 (1978); Bumper v. North Carolina, 391 U.S. 543 (1968).

Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177 (1990).

Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218 (1973).

Michigan v. Tyler, supra note 66.

Payton v. New York, supra note 66; Kirk v. Louisiana, 536 U.S. 635, 638 (2002).

Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983).

Michigan v. Tyler, supra note 66.

Kroplin v. Truax, 165 N.E. 498 (1929); Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905); North American Cold Storage Co. v. City of Chicago, 211 U.S. 306 (1908); Compagnie Francaise de Navigation a Vapeur v. Board of Health, 186 U.S. 380 (1902).

New York v. Burger, supra note 66.

Marshall v. Barlow, Inc., 436 U.S. 307 (1978).

Grad F.P. , The Public Health Law Manual 2nd Edition. (APHA, 1990:135) citing United States v. Biswell, 406 U.S. 311.

United States v. Moss, 963 F.2d 673 (4th Cir. 1992).

United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554 (1980).

Doe v. Heck, 327 F. 3d 492 (7th Cir. 2003).

Doe v. Heck, supra note 79.

Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966); Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428 (2000).

Oregon v. Elstad, 470 U. S. 298 (1985).

Miranda v. Arizona, supra note 81.

Florida v. Bostick, 501 U.S. 429 (2001).

New York v. Quarles, 467 U.S. 649 (1984).

Mauet T.A. , Trial Techniques (Aspen, Colorado: Aspen Publishers, 2000).

Gostin L.O. , supra note 5.

North Carolina General Statute (N.C.G.S.) §130A-475.

N.C.G.S. §130A-476.

N.C.G.S., supra note 89; N.C.G.S. §130A-143.

N.C.G.S. §130A-143(7).

N.C.G.S., supra note 91.

N.C.G.S. §130A-25.

N.C.G.S. §15A-401(b)(4).

N.C.G.S. §15A-534.5.

Stross , supra note 1.

Kolavic , supra note 14; Scott , supra note 14; Buchholz , supra note 14; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,” supra note 14; Jernigan , supra note 14; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 14.