Integrating Law and Social Epidemiology

Marmot M. , “Multilevel Approaches to Understanding Social Determinants,” in Berkman L. and Kawachi I. , eds., Social Epidemiology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): 349–67, at 353.

Rose G. , “Sick Individuals and Sick Populations,” International Journal of Epidemiology, 14 (1985): 32–38, Rose G. , The Strategy of Preventive Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).

Marmot M.G. Adelstein A.M. , and Bulusu L. , “Lessons from the Study of Immigrant Mortality,” Lancet, i (1984): 1455–57.

Link B.G. and Phelan J. , “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease,” Journal of Health & Social Behavior, extra issue (1995): 80–94.

Sweat M.D. , “Reducing HIV Incidence in Developing Countries with Structural and Environmental Interventions,” AIDS, 9, suppl. A (1995): S251–57.

Sarat A. and Silbey S. , “The Pull of the Policy Audience,” Law & Policy, 10 (1988): 97–166, at 138. See also Engel D. , “Legal Pluralism in an American Community: Perspectives on a Civil Trial Court,” American Bar Foundation Research Journal (1980): 425–54.

Sarat A. and Silbey S. , “Critical Traditions in Law and Society Research,” Law & Society Review, 21 (1987): 165–74, at 173.

Lieberman J. , The Litigious Society (New York: Basic Books, 1981); Friedman L. , Total Justice (New York: Russell Sage, 1985).

See Greenhouse C. , Praying for Justice: Faith, Order, and Community in an American Town (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986).

See Geertz C. , Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1983).

See Greenhouse C. , “Courting Difference: Issues of Interpretation and Comparison in the Study of Legal Ideologies,” Law and Society Review, 22 (1988): 687–707; Yngvesson B. , “Inventing Law in Local Settings: Rethinking Popular Legal Culture,” Yale Law Journal, 98 (1989): 1689–709.

Id. at 1693.

Sarat and Silbey , supra note 7, at 173.

Burris S. , “Introduction: Merging Law, Human Rights, and Social Epidemiology,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30, no. 4 (2002): 498–509, at 501.

Link and Phelan , supra note 4. See generally Lynch J. and Kaplan G. , “Socioeconomic Position,” in Berkman L. and Kawachi I. , eds., Social Epidemiology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): 13–35.

Kawachi I. and Berkman L. , “Social Cohesion, Social Capital and Health,” in Berkman L. and Kawachi I. , eds., Social Epidemiology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): 174–90, at 175.

Durkheim E. , De la Division du Travail Social (New York: The New Press, 1964).

Kawachi and Berkman , supra note 16; Kawachi I. , “Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality,” American Journal of Public Health, 87 (1997): 1491–98; Kawachi I. Kennedy B.P. , and Wilkinson R.G. , “Crime: Social Disorganization and Relative Deprivation,” Social Science & Medicine, 486 (1999): 719–31; Kawachi I. Kennedy B.P. , and Glass R. , “Social Capital and Self-Rated Health: A Contextual Analysis,” American Journal of Public Health, 89 (1999): 1187–93; Kawachi I. , “A Prospective Study of Social Networks in Relation to Total Mortality and Cardiovascular Disease Incidence in Men,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 50 (1996): 245–51; Achat H. , “Social Network, Stress, and Quality of Life,” Quality of Life Research, 7 (1998): 735–50.

Putnam R.D. , Bowling Alone (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

Kawachi and Berkman , supra note 16, at 185. See generally Kubzansky L. and Kawachi I. , “Affective States and Health,” in Berkman L. and Kawachi I. , eds., Social Epidemiology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000): 213–41.

Marmot , supra note 1, at 364–65.

McEwen B.S. and Seeman T. , “Protective and Damaging Effects of Mediators of Stress: Elaborating and Testing the Concepts of Allostasis and Allostatic Load,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896 (1999): 30–47. See, e.g., Kennedy B.P. , “(Dis)Respect and Black Mortality,” Ethnicity & Disease, 7 (1997): 207–14; Jones D.R. , “Affective and Physiological Responses to Racism: The Roles of Afrocentrism and Mode of Presentation,” Ethnicity & Disease, 6 (1996): 109–22.

See, e.g., Carlin J.E. Howard J. , and Messinger S.L. , Civil Justice and the Poor (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1967); Mayhew L. , “Institutions of Representation: Civil Justice and the Public,” Law & Society Review, 9 (1975): 401–29.

See Tyler T. , “Justice and Power in Civil Dispute Processing,” in Garth B. and Sarat A. , eds., Justice and Power in Sociolegal Studies (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1997): 309–46. Cf. Davis P.C. , “Law as Microaggression,” Yale Law Journal, 98 (1989): 1559–77.

Yngvesson B. , “Making Law at the Doorway: The Clerk, the Court, and the Construction of Community in a New England Town,” Law & Society Review, 22 (1988): 409–48.

Engel D. and Munger F. , “Rights, Remembrance and the Reconciliation of Difference,” Law & Society Review, 30 (1996): 7–53.

Merry S.E. , Getting Justice and Getting Even (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).

Weitzer R. , “Racialized Policing: Residents' Perceptions in Three Neighborhoods,” Law and Society Review, 34 (2000): 129–55; Fagan J. and Davies G. , “Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race, and Disorder in New York City,” Fordham Urban Law Journal, 28 (2000): 457–504; Roberts D. , “Race, Vagueness, and the Social Meaning of Order-Maintenance Policing,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 89 (1999): 775–836.

See, e.g., Martin C.A. , “Physicians' Psychologic Reactions to Malpractice Litigation,” Southern Medical Journal, 84 (1991): 1300–04.

Sarat A. , “‘… The Law Is All Over’: Power, Resistance and the Legal Consciousness of the Welfare Poor,” Yale Journal of Law and the Humanities, 2 (1990): 343–79.

Id. at 343.

See Gilliom J. , Overseers of the Poor: Surveillance, Resistance, and the Limits of Privacy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).

See White L. , “Subordination, Rhetorical Survival Skills, and Sunday Shoes: Notes on the Hearing of Mrs. G.,” Buffalo Law Review, 38 (1990): 1–58; Ewick P. and Silbey S. , The Common Place of Law (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

Sarat , supra note 30, at 344.

Tyler T. , Why People Obey the Law (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).

Braithwaite J. , Crime, Shame and Reintegration (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

Gusfield J.R. , Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1963).

Herek G.M. , “Illness, Stigma, and AIDS,” in Herek G.M. , eds., Psychological Aspects of Serious Illness: Chronic Conditions, Fatal Diseases and Clinical Care, (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1990); Rotheram-Borus M.J. , “Predicting Patterns of Sexual Acts Among Homosexual and Bisexual Youths,” American Journal of Psychiatry, 152 (1995): 588–95; Mays V.M. , “Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health, 91 (2001): 1869–76.

See, e.g., Lessig L. , “The Regulation of Social Meaning,” University of Chicago Law Review, 62 (1995): 943–1045; Sunstein C.R. , “Social Norms and Social Roles,” Columbia Law Review, 96 (1996): 903–68.

Adler M.D. , “Expressive Theories of Law: A Skeptical Overview,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 148 (2000): 1353–501; Harcourt B.E. , “After the ‘Social Meaning Turn’: Implications for Research Design and Methods of Proof in Contemporary Criminal Law Policy Analysis,” Law & Society Review, 34 (2000): 179–211.

Tonry M. , Malignant Neglect: Race, Crime and Punishment in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Fagan and Davies , supra note 28; Schneider C.L. , “Racism, Drug Policy, and AIDS,” Political Science Quarterly, 113 (1998): 427–47; Cureton S.R. , “An Empirical Test of the Social Threat Phenomenon Using 1990 Census and Uniform Crime Reports,” Journal of Criminal Justice, 29 (2001): 157–66; Arvantes T.M. Asher M.A. , and Martin A. , “State and County Incarceration Rates: The Direct and Indirect Effects of Race and Inequality,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 57 (1998): 207–23.

See Weitzer R. , supra note 28. See also DeLisi M. and Regoli B. , “Race, Conventional Crime and Criminal Justice: The Declining Importance of Skin Color,” Journal of Criminal Justice, 27 (1999): 549–57 (arguing that existing data do not support the claim that race drives criminal justice behavior).

Krieger N. , “Discrimination and Health,” in Berkman L. and Kawachi I. , eds., Social Epidemiology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000): 36–75; Mays V.M. , “Perceived Race-Based Discrimination, Employment Status, and Job Stress in a National Sample of Black Women: Implications for Health Outcomes,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 (1996): 319–29; Mays, supra note 38.

Krieger , supra note 43, at 65.

Fagan and Davies , supra note 28, at 457.

Weitzer R. and Tuch S. , “Race, Class and Perceptions of Discrimination by Police,” Crime and Delinquency, 45 (1999): 494–507.

See, e.g., Hurst Y. and Frank J. , “How Kids View Cops: The Nature of Juvenile Attitudes Towards the Police,” Journal of Criminal Justice, 28 (2000): 189–202.

Weitzer , supra note 28, at 129–55.

Schneider , supra note 41, at 430 (citations omitted). See also Tonry , supra note 41.

Friedman S.R. Perlis T. , and Des Jarlais D.C. , “Laws Prohibiting Over-the-Counter Syringe Sales to Injection Drug Users: Relations to Population Density, HIV Prevalence, and HIV Incidence,” American Journal of Public Health, 91 (2001): 791–93.

Compton C.L. , “Legal Needle Buying in St. Louis,” American Journal of Public Health, 82 (1992): 595–96.

Hoffman J. Su S. , and Pach A. , “Changes in Network Characteristics and HIV Risk Behaviors Among Injection Drug Users,” Alcohol and Drug Dependence, 46 (1997): 41–51. See also Neaigus A. , “The Relevance of Drug Injectors' Social and Risk Networks for Understanding and Preventing HIV Infection,” Social Science & Medicine, 38 (1994): 67–78; Neaigus A. , “High-Risk Personal Networks and Syringe Sharing as Risk Factors for HIV Infection Among New Drug Injectors,” Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 11 (1996): 499–509; Friedman S.R. , “Sociometric Risk Networks and Risk for HIV Infection,” American Journal of Public Health, 87 (1997): 1289–96.

Bullard R.D. and Johnson G.S. , “Environmental Justice: Grassroots Activism and Its Impact on Public Policy Decision Making,” Journal of Social Issues, 56 (2000): 555–78; Foreman C.H. , The Promise and Peril of Environmental Justice (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1998).

Diez-Roux A.V. , “Neighborhood of Residence and Incidence of Coronary Heart Disease,” N. Engl. J. Med., 345 (2001): 99–106.

Cohen D. , “‘Broken Windows’ and the Risk of Gonorrhea,” American Journal of Public Health, 90 (2000): 230–36.

Maantay J. , “Zoning Law, Health, and Environmental Justice: What's the Connection?,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30, no. 4 (2002): 572–93.

E.g., Blankenship K.M. , “Structural Interventions in Public Health,” AIDS, 14, suppl. 1 (2000): S11–21; Sweat , supra note 5, at S251–57. Cf. Whitehead M. , “Diffusion of Ideas in Social Inequalities in Health: A European Prospective,” Milbank Quarterly, 76 (1998): 469–92.

Kawachi I. , “Income Inequality and Health,” in Kawachi I. and Berkman L. , eds., Social Epidemiology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000): 76–94, at 86–87; Putnam , supra note 19; Coburn D. , “Income Inequality, Social Cohesion and the Heath Status of Populations: The Role of Neo-Liberalism,” Social Science and Medicine, 51 (2000): 135–46.

Kawachi I. Kennedy B.P. , and Lochner K. , “Long Live Community. Social Capital as Public Health,” The American Prospect (November/December 1997): 56–59; Kawachi and Berkman , supra note 16

See Freeman R.B. , “Toward an Apartheid Economy,” Harvard Business Review, September-October 1996, at 114–25.

McMahon M.J. Jr. , and Abreu A.G. , “Winner-Take-All Markets: Easing the Case for Progressive Taxation,” Florida Tax Review, 4 (1998): 1–81, at 11.

See, e.g., id. (finding that “the combined effects of the 1981 and 1986 Acts produced changes in income tax burdens that turned out to be lopsidedly in favor of those at the very top of the economic ladder”); Williams W. , “Tax-Cut Culprits Revealed,” The Seattle Times, July 9, 2001, at B5.

Moran B. and Whitford W. , “A Black Critique of the Internal Revenue Code,” Wisconsin Law Review, 756 (1996): 751–820. See also Powell J.A. , “How Government Tax and Housing Policies Have Racially Segregated America,” in Browning K.B. and Fellows M.L. , eds., Taxing America (New York: New York University Press, 1996): at 80, 89–98; Havard C.J. , “African-American Farmers and Fair Lending: Racializing Rural Economic Space,” Stanford Law and Policy Review, 12 (2001): 333–60.

See Marmot M. , “The Influence of Income on Health: Views of an Epidemiologist,” Health Affairs (March/April 2002): 31–46; Deaton A. , “Policy Implications of the Gradient of Health and Wealth: An Economist Asks, Would Redistributing Income Improve Population Health?,” Health Affairs (March/April 2002): 13–30.

For a concise discussion of current views of the “civic society,” see Etzioni A. , “Law in Civil Society, Good Society, and the Prescriptive State,” Chicago-Kent Law Review, 75 (2000): 355–77.

Kennedy B.P. Kawachi I. , and Brainerd E. , “The Role of Social Capital in the Russian Mortality Crisis,” World Development, 26 (1998): 2029–43.

LaVeist T. , “Segregation, Poverty and Empowerment: Health Consequences for African Americans,” Milbank Quarterly, 71 (1993): 41–64.

See, e.g., Lijphart A. , “Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma — Presidential Address, American Political Science Association,” American Political Science Review, 91 (1997): 1–14; Southwell P. , “Alienation and Nonvoting in the 1992 Presidential Elections,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 23 (1995): 99–117. But see Shields T. and Goidel R. , “Who Contributes? Checkbook Participation, Class Biases, and the Impact of Legal Reform 1952–1994,” American Politics Quarterly, 28 (2000): 216–33 (noting increase in the number of people in the United States making financial contributions to campaigns).

See, e.g., Verba S. Schlozman Lehman K. , and Brady H.E. , Voice and Equality. Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995). See also Franklin M. and de Mino W. , “Separated Powers, Divided Government, and Turnout in US Presidential Elections,” American Journal of Political Science, 42 (1998): 316–26 (linking turnout to separation of powers and divided government).

Buckley v. Vallejo , 424 U.S. 1 (1976).

Sunstein C.R. , “Political Equality and Unintended Consequences,” Columbia Law Review, 97 (1994): 1390–414, at 1390–92.

Ansolabehere S. and Snyder J. , “Soft Money, Hard Money, Strong Parties,” Columbia Law Review, 100 (2000): 598–619; Coleman J. and Manna P. , “Congressional Campaign Spending and the Quality of Democracy,” Journal of Politics, 62 (2000): 757–89. See also Sullivan K.M. , “Political Money and Freedom of Speech,” U.C. Davis Law Review, 30 (1997): 663–90.

See Verba Schlozman Lehman , and Brady , supra note 69.

Gardner J.A. , “Madison's Hope: Virtue, Self Interest, and the Design of Electoral Systems,” Iowa Law Review, 86 (2000): 87–172, at 89–90 (citations omitted).

Krieger , supra note 43.

See, e.g., Delgado R. , “Words That Wound: A Tort Action for Racial Insults, Epithets, and Name-Calling,” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 17 (1982): 133–81. The construction of race is also a key question in epidemiology. See Jones C.P. , “Invited Commentary: ‘Race,’ Racism, and the Practice of Epidemiology,” American Journal of Epidemiology, 154 (2001): 299–304.

Bell D.L. , Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism (New York: Basic Books, 1992): 47–64.

For a discussion, see Krieger L.H. , “The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Employment Opportunity,” Stanford Law Review, 47 (1995): 1161–247, at 1167.

Id. at 1166–67.

McCleskey v. Kemp , 481 U.S. 279 (1987); Kennedy R. , “McCleskey v. Kemp: Race, Capital Punishment, and the Supreme Court,” Harvard Law Review, 101 (1988): 1388–443; Baldus D.C. , “Reflections on the ‘Inevitability’ of Racial Discrimination in Capital Sentencing and ‘Impossibility’ of Its Prevention Detection, and Correction,” Washington & Lee Law Review, 51 (1994): 359–430.

See, e.g., Freeman v. Pitts , 503 U.S. 467 (1992).

See, e.g., Robinson R. , The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks (New York: Dutton, 2000).

Sturm S. , “Second Generation Employment Discrimination: A Structural Approach,” Columbia Law Review, 101 (2001): 458–567.

Etzioni A. , “Social Norms: Internalization, Persuasion, and History,” Law and Society Review, 34 (2000): 157–78; Sarat and Silbey , supra note 6.

E.g., Sampson R.J. and Raudenbush S.W. , “Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A New Look at Disorder in Urban Neighborhoods,” American Journal of Sociology, 105 (1999): 622–30; Sampson R. , “Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy,” Science, August 15, 1997, at 918.

Wilson J.Q. and Kelling G.L. , “The Police and Neighborhood Safety: Broken Window,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1982, at 29–38.

Aral S. Burris S. , and Shearing C. , “Health and the Governance of Security: A Tale of Two Systems,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30, no. 4 (2002): 632–43.

Etzioni A. , “Social Norms: Internalization, Persuasion, and History,” Law and Society Review, 34 (2000): 157–78.

Macaulay S. , “Non-Contractual Relations in Business: A Preliminary Study,” American Sociological Review, 28 (1963): 55–70; Ellickson R. , Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991).

Ribstein L.E. , “Law v. Trust,” Boston University Law Review, 81 (2001): 553–90, at 569.

See Engel D. , “The Oven Bird's Song: Insiders, Outsiders, and Personal Injuries in an American Community,” Law and Society Review, 18 (1984): 551–82. Cf. Havard , supra note 63 (describing how community control of farm lending decisions led to exclusion of black farmers from credit).

See, e.g., Whitehead , supra note 57. See also O'Keefe E. and Scott-Samuel A. , “Human Rights and Wrongs: Could Health Impact Assessment Help?,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30, no. 4 (2002): 734–38.

Geronimus A.T. , “To Mitigate, Resist, or Undo: Addressing Structural Influences on the Health of Urban Populations,” American Journal of Public Health, 90 (2000): 867–72; Friedman S.R. , “HIV-Related Politics in Long-Term Perspective,” AIDS Care, 10, suppl. 2 (1998): S93–103.