Legislative Approaches to Surrogate Motherhood

The author served as legal analyst for the U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment's report Infertility: Medical and Social Choices, and gratefully acknowledges the assistance of E. Blair Wardenburg in preparing the international and surrogate mothering surveys used in that report and discussed in this article. The opinions expressed here are those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Technology Assessment or of the project staff for the OTA report.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Infertility: Medical and Social Choices, OTA-BA-358 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988).

Id.

Associated Press, “Surrogate Mother Troubled by Lack of Regulation of Contracts,” April 23, 1988.

OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

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Assoc. Press, supra note 3; Parker P.J. , “Motivation of Surrogate Mothers: Initial Findings,” American Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 140 (1983): 1–4; Parker P.J. , “Surrogate Motherhood, Psychiatric Screening and Informed Consent, Baby Selling, and Public Policy,” Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 12 (1984): 21–39.

Andrews L.B. , “The Stork Market: The Law of the New Reproduction Technologies,” American Bar Association Journal, 70 (1984): 50–56; Dickens B. , “Surrogate Motherhood: Legal and Legislative Issues,” in Milunsky A. Annas G.J. , eds., Genetics and the Law III (New York: Plenum Press, 1985); OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

Katz A. , “Surrogate Motherhood and the Baby Selling Laws,” Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems, 20 (1986): 1–53.

Dickens B. , University of Toronto, Faculty of Law, personal communication, Oct. 12, 1987.

Gladwell M. Sharpe R. , “Baby M Winner,” The New Republic (Feb. 16, 1987): 15–18; OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

Kansas Attorney General Opinion No. 82–150, 1982.

Miroff v. Surrogate Mother, Marion Superior Court, Probate Division, Marion County, Indiana (Oct. 1986).

Doe v. Kelly, 307 N.W.2d 438, 106 Mich. App. 169 (1981); 122 Mich. App. 506, 333 N.W.2d 90 (1983).

In the Matter of Baby M, 525 A.2d 1128, 217 N.J. Super. 313 (Superior Ct. Chancery Division 1987), reversed on appeal, 537 A.2d 1227, 109 N.J. 396 (N.J. S. Ct. 1988).

In the Matter of Adoption of Baby Girl L.J., 505 N.Y.S. 2d 813, 132 Misc.2d 172) (Surr. Ct. Nassau Cty. 1986).

Surrogate Parenting Associates v. Commonwealth of Kentucky, ex rel Armstrong, 704 S.W.2d 209 (1986).

Baby Girl L.J. , supra note 17; Surrogate Parenting Assoc., supra note 18.

Nevada Revised Statutes, ch. 127.

Andrews , “Stork Market,” supra note 7; Brophy K.M. , “A Surrogate Mother Contract to Bear a Child,” University of Louisville Journal of Family Law, 20 (1982): 263–91; OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

Robertson J.A. Schulman J. , “Pregnancy and Prenatal Harm to Offspring: The Case of Mothers with PKU,” Hastings Center Report, 17, 4 (1987): 23–28.

Dworkin R.B. , “The New Genetics,” in Childress J. , eds., Biolaw (Frederick, Md.: University Publishers of America, 1986); Gallagher J. , “The Fetus and the Law—Whose Life Is It Anyway?,” Ms. Magazine (Nov. 1984); Gallagher J. , “Prenatal Invasions & Interventions: What's Wrong with Fetal Rights,” Harvard Women's Law Journal, 10 (1987): 9–58; Johnsen D.E. , “The Creation of Fetal Rights: Conflicts with Women's Constitutional Rights to Liberty, Privacy and Equality,” Yale Law Journal, 85 (1986): 599–625; Johnsen D.E. , “A New Threat to Pregnant Women's Authority,” Hastings Center Report, 17, 4 (1987): 33–38.

Rhoden N. , “The Judge in the Delivery Room: The Emergence of Court-Ordered Cesareans,” California Law Review, 74 (1986): 1951–2030.

Kolder V.E.B. Gallagher J. Parsons M.T. , “Court Ordered Obstetrical Interventions,” New England Journal of Medicine, 316 (1987): 1192–96; Rhoden , supra note 25.

Baby Girl L.J. , supra note 17; General Kansas Atty , supra note 13; Louisiana Attorney General Opinion No. 83–869, 1983; Miroff, supra note 14; Ohio Attorney General Opinion No. 83–001, 1983; Surrogate Parenting Assoc., supra note 18.

Baby Girl L.J. , supra note 17.

Surrogate Parenting Assoc. , supra note 18.

Baby M , supra note 16.

Yates v. Huber, as reported by Associated Press, Sept. 2, 3, and 10, 1987; Jan. 22 and Apr. 14, 1988.

Katz , supra note 9.

Haro v. Munoz, as reported by Associated Press, June 10 and Nov. 29, 1987; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Transportation, Tourism, and Hazardous Wastes, Hearings on H.R. 2433 (“The Anti-Surrogacy Act of 1987”), Oct. 16, 1987.

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Governmental Affairs Division, personal communication, Nov. 23, 1987; Andrews L.B. , “The Aftermath of Baby M: Proposed State Laws on Surrogate Motherhood,” Hastings Center Report, 17, 5 (1987): 31–40; Jaeger A. Andrews L. , American Bar Foundation, personal communication, Nov. 24, 1987; Katz , supra note 9; National Committee for Adoption, personal communication, Oct. 13, 1987; Pierce W. , “Survey of State Activity Regarding Surrogate Motherhood,” Family Law Reporter, 11 (1985): 3001.

Dickens , “Surrogate Motherhood,” supra note 7; Wadlington W. , “Artificial Conception: The Challenge for Family Law,” Virginia Law Review, 69 (1983): 465–514.

Baby M , supra note 16.

Dickens , “Surrogate Motherhood,” supra note 7.

H.B. No. 83H-6132, 1983.

Andrews , “Aftermath,” supra note 34.

Baby M , supra note 16.

Dickens , “Surrogate Motherhood,” supra note 7.

Robinson R.C. , Chair, National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, Committee on the Status of Children, Portland, Maine, personal communication, Oct. 17, 1987.

de Wachter M. de Wert G. , “In the Netherlands, Tolerance and Debate,” Hastings Center Report, 17, Supp. (1987): 15–16.

Andrews , “Aftermath,” supra note 34.

Frederick W.R. , “HIV Testing on Surrogate Mothers,” New England Journal of Medicine, 317 (1987): 1351–52

Andrews , “Aftermath,” supra note 34; Katz , supra note 9.

Dickens , “Surrogate Motherhood,” supra note 7.

Spain, Congreso de los Diputados, Comisión Especial de Estudio de la Fecundación “In Vitro” y la Inseminación Artificial Humanas (Special Commission for the Study of Human in Vitro Fertilization and Artificial Insemination), “Informe,” Boletin Oficial de las Cortes Generales, 166 (April 21, 1986): AD 38–1.

Cohen J. , Chief of Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic, Hospital of Sevres, Paris, France, personal communication, Oct. 21, 1987.

Associated Press, “Court Orders U.S. Agency Promoting Surrogate Motherhood to Close,” Jan. 1, 1988; Wagner W. , Medical Director, Duphar Pharma, Hannover, Federal Republic of Germany, Oct. 30, 1987.

OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

Whitman G.J. , Counselor for Scientific and Technological Affairs, Embassy of the United States of America, Rome, Italy, personal communication, Oct. 7, 1987.

Doe v. Kelly , supra note 15.

Baby M , supra note 16.

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Infertility Medical Procedures Act, Nos. 10122–71, 1984.

Deutscher Juristenag (German Law Association), “Beschluesse: Die kuenstliche Befruchtung Beim Menschen/Recht auf den Eigenen Tod (Resolution: On Artificial Human Fertilization),” Deutsches Artzeblatt, 83 (1986): 3273–76; Federal Republic of Germany, Bund–Lander Arbeitsgruppe (Federal-State Working Group), Zwischenbericht: Fortpflanzungsmedizin (Interim Report: Reproductive Medicine) (Bonn, 1987); Federal Republic of Germany, Bundestag (Parliament), Enquete-Kommission, Chancen und Risiken der Gentechnologie (Risk Assessment of Genetic Engineering) (Bonn: Wolf-Michael Catenhausen, Hanna Neumeister, 1987); Hirsch G.E. , Doctor of Jurisprudence, Augsburg, West Germany, Jan. 11, 1988; Konow M.H. , Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany, personal communication, Oct. 10, 1987; Sass H.M. , “Moral Dilemmas in Perinatal Medicine and the Quest for Large Scale Embryo Research: A Discussion of Recent Guidelines in the Federal Republic of Germany,” Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 12 (1987): 279–90.

Cohen, supra note 49; Comité Consultatif National d'Ethique pour les Sciences de la Vie et de la Santé, Journées Annuelles d'Ethique, Sommaire (Pans and Lyons, 1986); Comité Consultatif National d'Ethique pour les Sciences de la Vie et de la Santé, Lettre d'Information, No. 9 (Paris, 1987).

American Medical News, “Israel Outlaws Practice of Surrogate Motherhood,” June 12, 1987, p. 23, as cited in Childress et al., Biolaw, supra note 24.

Act No. 68 of June 12, 1987.

Battersby J.D. , “Woman Pregnant with Daughter's Triplets,” New York Times, Apr. 9, 1987, p. 1; Bell H.A. , Office of Science and Technology Policy, Embassy of South Africa, Washington, D.C., personal communication, April 7, 1988.

United Kingdom, Department of Health and Social Security, Legislation on Human Infertility Services and Embryo Research: A Consultation Paper (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1986).

Spain, supra note 48.

Sweden, Ministry of Justice, Insemination Committee, Barn Genom Befrunktning Utanfor Kroppenmm (Children Born Through Fertilization Outside the Body, etc.) (Statens offentliga utredningar) (Stockholm: Liber Allmnna Frlagez, 1985)1

Byk C. , “The Developments in the Council of Europe on Reproductive Medicine,” paper submitted to the Colloquium of the United Kingdom National Committee of Comparative Law, Cambridge, England, Sept. 15–17, 1987, reprinted in Byk C. , “Elements de Droit Comparé Relatifs à la Procréation Artificielle Humaine,” in Byk C. , ed., Procréation Artificielle: Analyse de l'Etat d'une Reflexton Juridique (Pans: Ministère de la Justice, 1987); Council of Europe, Ad Hoc Committee of Experts on Progress in the Biomedical Sciences (CAHBI), “Provisional Principles on the Techniques of Human Artificial Procreation and Certain Procedures Carried out on Embryos in Connection with Those Techniques,” Secretariat memorandum, prepared by the Directorate of Legal Affairs, 1986.

Québec, Conseil du Statut de la Femme, Nouvelles Technologies de la Réproduction: Questions Soulevées dans la Littérature Générale (Québec: Gouvernement du Québec, Sept. 1985); Québec, Conseil du Statut de la Femme, Nouvelles Technologies de la Réproduction: Analyses et Questionnements Feministes (Québec: Gouvernement du Québec, March 1986); Québec , Conseil du Statut de la Femme, Nouvelles Technologies de la Réproduction: Etudes des Principals Legislations et Recommandations (Québec: Gouvernement du Québec, March 1986); Québec , Conseil du Statut de la Femme, Nouvelles Technologies de la Réproduction: Pratiques Cliniques et Experimentales au Québec (Québec: Gouvernement du Québec, Jan. 1986).

Robertson J.A. , “Procreative Liberty and the Control of Conception, Pregnancy, and Childbirth,” Virginia Law Review, 69 (1983): 405–64.

Baby M , supra note 16.

Mason J.K. MacCall-Smith R.A. , Law and Medical Ethics , 2d ed. (London: Butterworths, 1987).

Dixon R. , “Sisters Tell of Planning Their Special Baby,” The Age (Melbourne, Australia), June 9, 1988, p. 3.

Brennan F. , “A Sister's Priceless Gift—Twins,” Australian Women's Weekly, 56 (May 1988): 14–15.

Smith v. Jones, CF 025653 (Los Angeles Superior Court, 1987); Smith & Smith v. Jones & Jones, 85–532014 DZ, Detroit, 3d Dist. (March 15, 1986), as reported in Childress , Biolaw, supra note 24.

Doe v. Roe, Fairfax County (VA) Circuit Court (Chancery No. 103–147), as reported by Associated Press, Aug. 16, 1987, and Jan. 12, 1988.

Israel, Ministry of Health, Public Health (Extracorporeal Fertilization) Regulations of 1987 (unofficial translation by A. Shapira, Tel Aviv University Law School, 1987).

King P. , “Reproductive Technologies,” in Childress , Biolaw, supra note 24.

Smith & Smith , supra note 71.

National Committee for Adoption, Adoption Factbook: United States Data, Issues, Regulations and Resources (Washington, D.C.: 1985).

United Kingdom, supra note 63.

Bell , supra note 62.

Byk C. Galpin-Jacquot S. , Etat Comparatif des Règles et Juridiques Relatives à la Procréation Artificielle (Paris: Ministère de la Justice, Ministère de la Santé et de la Famille, 1986).

Federal Republic of Germany, Zwischenbericht, supra note 58.

Federal Republic of Germany, Bundesministerium für Justiz and Bundesministerium für Forschung und Technologie (Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Research and Technology), In Vitro Fertilisation, Genomanalyse und Gentherapie (IVF, Genome Analysis, and Gene Therapy) (Munich: 1985).

Byk , “Developments,” supra note 9; Council of Europe, supra note 66.

A. Campana, Servicio di Endocrinologia Ginecologica, Ospedale Distrettuale di Locarno, Switzerland, personal communication, Nov. 18, 1987; Questiones Familiales editorial/sommaire “Commission d'experts pour les questions de technologie génétique chez l'homme” (Bern: Dec. 1986 issue); Zobrist S. , M.D., Special Assistant for International Affairs, Federal Office of Public Health, Bern, Switzerland, personal communication, Nov. 5, 1987.

Erasmus C. , “Test-Tube Babies Common in South Africa,” Daily Nation (Nairobi), Oct. 3, 1987, p. 2; Michelow M.C. , “Mother-Daughter in Vitro Fertilization Triplet Surrogate Pregnancy,” Journal of in Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer, 5, 1 (1988): 1–56.

Battersby , supra note 62.

Bell , supra note 62.

OTA, Infertility, supra note 1.

Radin M.J. , “Market-Inalienability,” Harvard Law Review, 100 (1987): 1849–1946; Ramsey P. , Fabricated Man: The Ethics of Genetic Control (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970).

Lamanna M.A. , “On the Baby Assembly Line: Reproductive Technology and the Family,” paper presented at the University of Dayton conference “Reproductive Technologies and the Catholic Tradition,” Oct. 30, 1987.

Goerlich A. Krannich M. , “Summary of Contributions and Debates at the Hearing of Women on Reproductive and Genetic Engineering,” Documentation of the Feminist Hearing on Genetic Engineering and Reproductive Technologies, March 6–7, 1986 (Brussels: Women's Bureau, European Parliament, 1986).

Hanifin H. , “Surrogate Parenting: Reassessing Human Bonding,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Aug. 1987; Parker , “Motivation,” supra note 6; Parker , “Surrogate Motherhood,” supra note 6; Sutton J. , paper presented to the Pennsylvania State Legislature on behalf of the National Association of Surrogate Mothers, 1987.

Doe v. Kelly , supra note 15; Baby M, supra note 16.

Baby M , supra note 16.

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Robertson J.A. , “Embryos, Families and Procreative Liberty: The Legal Structure of the New Reproduction,” Southern California Law Review, 59 (1986): 939–1041. Emphasis added.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, New Developments in Biotechnology: Ownership of Human Tissues and Cells , OTA-BA-337 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987).

Baby M , supra note 16.