This two–year study with 122 business owners examined the link between affective well–being and task–oriented as well as relationship–oriented personal initiative (PI). We tested two complementary models explaining the link between well–being and PI: (1) broaden–and–build theory and (2) self–regulation as limited resource approach. In line with current research on well–being, we differentiated between hedonic and eudaimonic well–being using life satisfaction and vigor as indicators. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that only vigor predicted both forms of PI. Our results support the self–regulation approach and indicate that eudaimonic well–being is the relevant affective well–being dimension for proactive behavior.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AvolioB.J. & WaldmanD.A. (1990). An examination of age and cognitive test performance across job complexity and occupational types. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 43–50.
2.
BaronR.A. (2008). The role of affect in the entrepreneurial process. Academy of Management Review, 33, 328–340.
3.
BaronR.A., TangJ., & HmielsekiK. (2010). Entrepreneurs’ dispositional positive affect and firm performance: “Too much of a good thing?” Paper presented at the Academy of Management Conference, Montreal.
4.
BaumeisterR.F., BratslavskyE., MuravenM., & TiceD.M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.
5.
BierlyP., KesslerE., & ChristensenE. (2000). Organizational learning, knowledge and wisdom. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 13, 595–618.
6.
BinnewiesC., SonnentagS., & MojzaE.J. (2009a). Daily performance at work: Feeling recovered in the morning as a predictor of day–level job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 67–93.
7.
BinnewiesC., SonnentagS., & MojzaE.J. (2009b). Feeling recovered and thinking about the good sides of one's work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 243–256.
8.
BinnewiesC., SonnentagS., & MojzaE.J. (2010). Recovery during the weekend and fluctuations in weekly job performance: A week–level study examining intra–individual relationships. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 419–441.
9.
BirdB.J. (1989). Entrepreneurial behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.
10.
BlanchflowerD.G. (2000). Self–employment in OECD countries. Labour Economics, 7, 471–505.
11.
BosticT.J., RubioD.M., & HoodM. (2000). A validation of the subjective vitality scale using structural equation modeling. Social Indicators Research, 52, 313–324.
12.
ButtnerE.H. (1992). Entrepreneurial stress: Is it hazardous to your health?Journal of Managerial Issues, 4, 223–240.
13.
CardonM.S. & KirkC. (2010). Passion and persistence in entrepreneurship. Paper presented at the Academey of Management Conference, Montreal.
14.
CardonM.S., WincentJ., SinghJ., & DrnovsekM. (2009). The nature and experience of entrepreneurial passion. Academy of Management Review, 34, 511–532.
15.
DeMartinoR., BarbatoR., & JacquesP.H. (2006). Exploring the career/achievement and personal life orientation differences between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs: The impact of sex and dependents. Journal of Small Business Management, 44, 350–368.
16.
Den HartogD.N. & BelschakF.D. (2007). Personal initiative, commitment and affect at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80, 601–622.
17.
DeTienneD.R., ShepherdD.A., & De CastroJ.O. (2008). The fallacy of “only the strong survive”: The effects of extrinsic motivation on the persistence decisions for under–performing firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 23, 528–546.
18.
DienerE. (2000). Subjective well–being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.
19.
DimovD. (2007). From opportunity insight to opportunity intention: The importance of person–situation learning match. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31, 561–583.
20.
EricssonK., KrampeR., & Tesch–RömerC. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406.
21.
FayD. & FreseM. (2001). The concept of personal initiative: An overview of validity studies. Human Performance, 14, 97–124.
22.
FooM.–D. (2011). Emotions and entrepreneurial opportunity evaluation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35, 375–393.
23.
FooM.–D., UyM.A., & BaronR.A. (2009). How do feelings influence effort? An empirical study of entrepreneurs’ affect and venture effort. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1086–1094.
24.
FredricksonB.L. (1998). What good are positive emotions?Review of General Psychology, 2, 300–319.
25.
FredricksonB.L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden–and–build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
26.
FreseM. (1995). Entrepreneurship in East Europe: A general model and empirical findings. In CooperC.L. & RousseauD.M. (Eds.), Trends in organizational behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 65–83). Chichester, U.K.: Wiley.
27.
FreseM. (2007). The psychological actions and entrepreneurial success: An action theory approach. In BaumJ.R., FreseM., & BaronR.A. (Eds.), The psychology of entrepreneurship (pp. 151–188). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
28.
FreseM. (2009). Toward a psychology of entrepreneurship—an action theory perspective. Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 5, 435–494.
29.
FreseM. & de KruifM. (2000). Psychological success factors of entrepreneurship in Africa: A selective literature review. In FreseM. (Ed.), Success and failure of microbusiness owners in Africa (pp. 31–53). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
30.
FreseM., FayD., HilburgerT., LengK., & TagA. (1997). The concept of personal initiative: Operationalization, reliability and validity in two german samples. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 139–161.
31.
FreseM., GarstH., & FayD. (2007). Making things happen: Reciprocal relationships between work characteristics and personal initiative in a four–wave longitudinal structural equation model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1084–1102.
32.
FreseM., KraussS.I., KeithN., EscherS., GrabarkiewiczR., LunengS., etal. (2007). Business owners’ action planning and its relationship to business success in three African countries. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1481–1498.
33.
FreseM., KringW., SooseA., & ZempelJ. (1996). Personal initiative at work: Differences between East and West Germany. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 37–63.
34.
FritzC. & SonnentagS. (2009). Antecedents of day–level proactive behavior: A look at job stressors and positive affect during the workday. Journal of Management, 35, 94–111.
35.
GailliotM.T., BaumeisterR.F., DeWallC.N., ManerJ.K., PlantE.A., TiceD.M., etal. (2007). Self–control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 325–336.
36.
GrantA.M. & AshfordS.J. (2008). The dynamics or proactivity at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28, 3–34.
37.
GrantA.M., ParkerS., & CollinsC. (2009). Getting credit for proactive behavior: Supervisor reactions depend on what you value and how you feel. Personnel Psychology, 62, 31–55.
38.
HamelG. & PrahaladC.K. (1994). Competing for the future. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
39.
HisrichR.D. (1990). Entrepreneurship/intrapreneurship. American Psychologist, 45, 209–222.
40.
HoangH. & AntoncicB. (2003). Network–based research in entrepreneurship: A critical review. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 165–187.
41.
HundleyG. (2001). Why and when are the self–employed more satisfied with their work?Industrial Relations, 40, 293–316.
42.
KanferR. & AckermanP.L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29, 440–458.
43.
KönigC., FreseM., SteinmetzH., RauchA., & WangZ.–M. (2007). Scenario–based scales measuring cultural orientations of business owners. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 17, 211–239.
44.
KraussS.I., FreseM., FriedrichC., & UngerJ.M. (2005). Entrepreneurial orientation: A psychological model of success among southern African small business owners. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 14, 315–344.
45.
LockeE.A. & BaumJ.R. (2007). Entrepreneurial motivation. In BaumJ.R., FreseM., & BaronR.A. (Eds.), The psychology of entrepreneurship (pp. 93–112). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
46.
LumpkinG.T. & DessG.G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. Academy of Management Review, 21, 135–172.
47.
LyubomirskyS., KingL., & DienerE. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.
48.
McMullenJ. & ShepherdA. (2006). Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur. Academy of Management Review, 31, 132–152.
MitchellT.R. & JamesL.R. (2001). Building better theory: Time and the specification of when things happen. Academy of Management Review, 26, 530–547.
51.
MuravenM. & BaumeisterR.F. (2000). Self–regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self–control resemble a muscle?Psychological Bulletin, 126, 247–259.
52.
ParkerS.K., BindlU.K., & StraussK. (2010). Making things happen: A model of proactive motivation. Journal of Management, 36, 827–856.
53.
PavotW. & DienerE. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with life scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164–172.
54.
PetersonC. & SeligmanM.E.P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues. A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press.
55.
PodsakoffP.M., MacKenzieS.B., LeeJ.–Y., & PodsakoffN.P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.
56.
ProttasD.J. & ThompsonC.A. (2006). Stress, satisfaction, and the work–family interface: A comparison of self–employed business owners, independents, and organizational employees. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 366–378.
57.
RauR., HoffmannK., MetzU., RichterP.G., RöslerU., & StephanU. (2008). Gesundheitsrisiken bei Untemehmern. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 52, 115–125.
58.
RauchA., WiklundJ., LumpkinG.T., & FreseM. (2009). Entrepreneurial orientation and business performance: An assessment of past research and suggestions for the future. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33, 761–787.
59.
ReisH.T., SheldonK.M., GableS.L., RoscoeJ., & RyanR.M. (2000). Daily well–being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419–435.
60.
RichardsonK.M. & RothsteinH.R. (2008). Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: A meta–analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 69–93.
61.
RunyanR.C., HuddlestonP., & SwinneyJ. (2006). Entrepreneurial orientation and social capital as small firm strategies: A study of gender differences from a resource–based view. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 2, 455–477.
62.
RussellJ.A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.
63.
RyanR.M. & DeciE.L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well–being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.
64.
RyanR.M. & DeciE.L. (2008). From ego depletion to vitality: Theory and findings concerning the facilitation of energy available to the self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 702–717.
65.
RyanR.M. & FrederickC. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well–being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565.
66.
RyanR.M., WeinsteinN., BernsteinJ., BrownK.W., MistrettaL., & GagnéM. (2010). Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 159–168.
67.
SchindehutteM., MorrisM., & AllenJ. (2006). Beyond achievement: Entrepreneurship as extreme experience. Small Business Economics, 27, 349–368.
68.
SchumpeterJ.A. (1935). Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung [Theory of economic development] (4th ed.). Munich, Germany: Duncker & Humblot.
69.
ShaneS. & VenkataramanS. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25, 217–226.
70.
ShepherdD.A., WiklundJ., & HaynieJ.M. (2009). Moving forward: Balancing the financial and emotional costs of business failure. Journal of Business Venturing, 24, 134–148.
71.
ShiromA. (2004). Feeling vigorous at work? The construct of vigor and the study of positive affect in organizations. In PerrewéP.L. & GansterD.C. (Eds.), Research in organizational stress and well–being (Vol. 3, pp. 135–165). Greenwich, CN: JAI Press.
72.
SonnentagS., BinnewiesC., & MojzaE.J. (2008). “Did you have a nice evening?”—A day–level study on recovery experiences, sleep and work–relevant affect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 674–684.
73.
SonnentagS. & FreseM. (in press). Dynamic performance. In KozlowskiS.W.J. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Cambridge, MA: Oxford University Press.
74.
SonnentagS. & JeldenS. (2009). Job stressors and the pursuit of sport activities: A day–level perspective. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 165–181.
75.
SonnentagS. & NiessenC. (2008). Staying vigorous until work is over: The role of trait vigour, day–specific work experiences and recovery. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 435–458.
76.
UngerJ., KeithN., HillingC., GielnikM., & FreseM. (2009). Deliberate practice among south African small business owners: Relationships with education, cognitive ability, knowledge, and success. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82, 21–44.
77.
UtschA., RauchA., RothfussR., & FreseM. (1999). Who becomes a small scale entrepreneur in a post–socialist environment: On the differences between entrepreneurs and managers in East Germany. Journal of Small Business Management, 37, 31–42.
78.
Van GelderenM., FreseM., & ThurikR. (2000). Strategies, uncertainty and performance of small business startups. Small Business Economics, 15, 165–181.
79.
VittersøJ., SøholtY., HetlandA., ThoresenI., & RøysambE. (2009). Was Hercules happy? Some answers from a functional model of human well–being. Social Indicators Research, 95, 1–18.
80.
WiklundJ. & ShepherdD. (2003). Knowledge–based resources, entrepreneurial orientation, and the performance of small and medium–sized businesses. Strategic Management Journal, 24, 1307–1314.
81.
ZhaoX.–Y., FreseM., & GiardiniA. (2010). Business owners’ network size and business growth in china: The role of comprehensive social competency. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 22, 675–705.
