This study used an experimental paradigm to investigate the role of secondary cognitive appraisals in women's sexual assault resistance and whether these appraisals mediated influences of alcohol and prior victimization. After consuming a beverage (control, placebo, moderate, or high dose), 351 women projected themselves into a simulated interaction with a sexually aggressive man. Four types of secondary appraisals (shock at the man's behavior, concern about his feelings, uncertainty in the situation, conflict about what to do) and three resistance strategies (assertive, polite, passive) were examined. Path modeling revealed that, as expected, intoxication and prior sexual victimization influenced secondary appraisals, which in turn influenced intended resistance. Prior adult sexual assault (ASA) and childhood sexual abuse (CSA) also had direct effects: ASA negatively predicted assertive resistance and CSA positively predicted passivity. Findings suggest that secondary appraisals are key targets for intervention to facilitate effective resistance, thereby reducing the risk of adult sexual victimization.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbbeyA.ClintonA. M.McAuslanP.ZawackiT.BuckO. (2002). Alcohol-involved rapes: Are they more violent?Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2699–109
2.
AbbeyA.ZawackiT.BuckP.ClintonA. M.McAuslanP. (2004). Sexual assault and alcohol consumption: What do we know about their relationship and what types of research are still needed?Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9271–303
3.
ArataC. M. (2002). Child sexual abuse and sexual revictimization. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9135–164
4.
AtkesonB. M.CalhounK. S.MorrisK. T. (1989). Victim resistance to rape: The relationship of previous victimization, demographics, and situational factors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 18497–507
5.
BernsteinD. P.FinkL.HandelsmanL.FooteJ.LovejoyM.WenzelK. (1994). Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1511132–1136
6.
BrenerN. D.McMahonP. M.WarrenC. W.DouglasK. A. (1999). Forced sexual intercourse and associated health-risk behaviors among female college students in the United States. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67252–259
7.
BriereJ. N.ElliottD. M. (1994). Immediate and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse. Future of Children, 454–69
8.
BryanA.SchmiegeS. J.BroaddusM. R. (2007). Mediational analysis in HIV/AIDS research: Estimating multivariate path analytic models in a structural equation modeling framework. AIDS and Behavior, 11365–383
9.
ChouC.-P.BentlerP. M. (2002). Model modification in structural equation modeling by imposing constraints. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 41271–287
10.
CorbinW. R.BernatJ. A.CalhounK. S.McNairL. D.SealsK. L. (2001). The role of alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption among sexually victimized and nonvictimized college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16297–311
11.
DavisJ. L.Petretic-JacksonP. A. (2000). The impact of child sexual abuse on adult interpersonal functioning: A review and synthesis of the empirical literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5291–328
12.
DavisK. C.GeorgeW. H.NorrisJ. (2004). Women's responses to unwanted sexual advances: The role of alcohol and inhibition conflict. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28333–343
13.
DavisK. L. C. (2000). Women's perceptions of and responses to sexual aggression: The alcohol myopia and anxiolysis-disinhibition theories. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 60, 3560
14.
GeorgeW. H.DrownD.TorresA.SchachtR. L.StonerS. A.NorrisJ. (2004). Establishing the advantage of ideographically determined BAC data relative to standard waiting periods. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 28(5S1), 40A
15.
GeorgeW. H.StonerS. A. (2000). Understanding acute alcohol effects on sexual behavior. Annual Review of Sex Research, 1192–124
16.
GeorgeW. H.StonerS. A.NorrisJ.LopezP. A.LehmanG. L. (2000). Alcohol expectancies and sexuality: A self-fulfilling prophecy analysis of dyadic perceptions and behavior. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61168–176
17.
GiancolaP. R.ZeichnerA. (1997). The biphasic effects of alcohol on human physical aggression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106598–607
18.
GidyczC. A.McNamaraJ. R.EdwardsK. M. (2006). Women's risk perception and sexual victimization: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11441–456
19.
HarringtonN. T.LeitenbergH. (1994). Relationship between alcohol consumption and victim behaviors immediately preceding sexual aggression by an acquaintance. Violence & Victims, 9315–324
20.
JanisI. L.MannL. (1977). Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment. New York: The Free Press
21.
KossM. P.GidyczC. A.WisniewskiN. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55162–170
22.
KossM. P.OrosC. J. (1982). Sexual Experiences Survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50455–457
23.
LeitenbergH.GibsonL. E.NovyP. L. (2004). Individual differences among undergraduate women in methods of coping with stressful events: The impact of cumulative childhood stressors and abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28181–192
24.
Messman-MooreT. L.LongP. J. (2003). The role of childhood sexual abuse sequelae in the sexual revictimization of women: An empirical review and theoretical reformulation. Clinical Psychology Review, 23537–571
25.
MuehlenhardC. L.HighbyB. J.LeeR. S.BryanT. S.DodrillW. A. (1998). The sexual revictimization of women and men sexually abused as children: A review of the literature. Annual Review of Sex Research, 9177–223
26.
MuthenL. K.MuthenB. O. (1998–2007). Mplus users guide (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthen & Muthen
27.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (1994). Alcohol-related impairment (Alcohol Alert No. 25 PH 351). Washington, DC: Author
28.
NorrisJ.GeorgeW. H.StonerS. A.MastersN. T.ZawackiT.DavisK. C. (2006). Women's responses to sexual aggression: The effects of childhood trauma, alcohol, and prior relationship. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14402–411
29.
NorrisJ.NuriusP. S.DimeffL. A. (1996). Through her eyes: Factors affecting women's perception of and resistance to acquaintance sexual aggression threat. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20123–145
30.
NuriusP. S.NorrisJ. (1996). A cognitive ecological model of women's response to male sexual coercion in dating. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 8117–139
31.
NuriusP. S.NorrisJ.MacyR.HuangB. (2004). Women's situational coping with acquaintance sexual assault: Applying an appraisal-based model. Violence Against Women, 10450–478
32.
NuriusP. S.NorrisJ.YoungD. S.GrahamT. L.GaylordJ. (2000). Interpreting and defensively responding to threat: Examining appraisals and coping with acquaintance sexual aggression. Violence & Victims, 15187–208
33.
RoodmanA. A.ClumG. A. (2001). Revictimization rates and method variance: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 21183–204
34.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66507–514
35.
SorensonS. B.SiegelJ. M.GoldingJ. M.SteinJ. A. (1991). Repeated sexual victimization. Violence & Victims, 6299–308
36.
TestaM.LivingstonJ. A.CollinsR. L. (2000). The role of women's alcohol consumption in evaluation of vulnerability to sexual aggression. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8185–191
37.
TestaM.ParksK. A. (1996). The role of women's alcohol consumption in sexual victimization. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1217–234
38.
TestaM.VanZile-TamsenC.LivingstonJ. A.BuddieA. M. (2006). The role of women's alcohol consumption in managing sexual intimacy and sexual safety motives. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67665–674
39.
UllmanS. E. (1997). Review and critique of empirical studies of rape avoidance. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24177–204
40.
UllmanS. E.KarabatsosG.KossM. P. (1999). Alcohol and sexual assault in a national sample of college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14603–625
41.
UllmanS. E.KnightR. A. (1992). Fighting back: Women's resistance to rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 731–43
42.
UllmanS. E.KnightR. A. (1993). The efficacy of women's resistance strategies in rape situations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1723–38
VanZile-TamsenC.TestaM.LivingstonJ. A. (2005). The impact of sexual assault history and relationship context on appraisal of and responses to acquaintance sexual assault risk. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20813–832
45.
WechslerH.NelsonT. F. (2001). Binge drinking and the American college students: What's five drinks?Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15287–291
