The subject of genetically modified (GM) products has raised considerable controversy in recent years, especially in developed countries, where it has led to tension over regulatory differences between the United States (US) and the European Union (EU). One aspect of this tension is its impact on developing countries, especially in Africa. The aim of this article is to explore this impact, paying particular attention to GM food aid policy and GM crop growing promotion. We use the theoretical framework of the precautionary principle (PP) to evaluate the issues involved. Our conclusion is that the EU's strong interpretation of the PP in relation to GMOs (‘potential difference’) currently prevails over the US's weak interpretation of the PP in relation to GMOs (‘substantial equivalence’) in developing countries, but that this could change as a result of non-GM crop failure and improved performance of GM crops.
BodulovichG. (2005) ‘Is the European attitude to GM products suffocating African development?’, Functional Plant Biology, 32, 1069–1075.
4.
CantleyM. (1995) ‘The regulation of modern biotechnology: A historical and European perspective’, in BrauerD. (ed.), Biotechnology (2nd edn), Vol. 12, Legal, Economic and Ethical Dimensions (New York: VCH), 506–681.
5.
ClappJ. (2004) ‘WTO agricultural trade battles and food aid’, Third World Quarterly, 25:8, 1439–1452.
6.
ClappJ. (2005) ‘The political economy of food aid in an era of agricultural biotechnology’, Global Governance, 11:4, 467–485.
EC (1997) ‘Regulation (EC) No. 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 1997 concerning novel foods and novel food ingredients’, Official Journal of the European Communities L 043, 14 February 1997, P. 0001–0006.
10.
Ecologist (2003) ‘GM food aid: US on warpath over GM food’, The Ecologist, March, 46.
11.
Economist (2002) ‘Better dead than GM fed? Europe's greens are helping to keep Africans hungry’, The Economist, 364:8291, 76.
12.
EU (1990) ‘Council Directive of 23 April 1990 on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms’ (90/220EEC), Belgian Biosafety Server. Available online at: http://www.biosafety.be/GB/Dir.Eur.GB/Del.Ref/90.220.html (accessed 11 February 2005).
13.
EU (2001) ‘Directive 2001/18/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms and repealing Council Directive 90/220/EEC’, Official Journal of the European Communities L106/1–17, April. Available online at: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_106/l_10620010417en00010038.pdf (accessed 11 February 2005).
14.
EU (2003) ‘Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003 on genetically modified food and feed’, Official Journal of the European Communities L 268, 18 October, 1–23. Available online at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2003/l_268/l_26820031018en00010023.pdf (accessed 11 February 2005).
FAO (1996) ‘Joint FAO/WHO expert consultation on biotechnology and food safety’, Food and Agriculture Organisation, October. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/es/ESN/food/pdf/biotechnology.pdf (accessed 4 November 2005).
18.
FAO (2002) ‘Food aid in the context of the WTO negotiations on agriculture [40]’, Food and Agriculture Organisation. Available online at: http://www.fao.org//docrep/005/y3733e/y37733e06.htm (accessed 21 March 2006).
GAIN (2005a) GAIN Report: People's Republic of China. Biotechnology: Annual 2005, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, 14 April. Available online at: http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200604/146187475.pdf (accessed 10 August 2006).
21.
GAIN (2005b) GAIN Report: Brazil Biotechnology. Annual Agricultural Biotechnology Report 2005, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, 12 July. Available online at: http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200507/146130270.pdf (accessed 10 August 2006).
Grain (2005a) ‘USAID: Making the world hungry for GM crops’, Grain Briefing, April. Available online at: http://www.grain.org/briefings/?id=191 (accessed 13 September 2005).
25.
Grain (2005b) ‘Bt Cotton in Makhathini, South Africa: The success story that never was’, Grain News Release. Available online at: http://www.twnside.org.sg/title2/service211.htm (accessed 13 September 2005).
26.
Greenpeace (2002) ‘USAID and GM food aid’, Greenpeace, October. Available online at: http://www.greenpeace.org.uk (accessed 12 March 2006).
HeongC.-Y. (2005) ‘Impact of Bt Cotton in South Africa far from rosy’, Third World Network, 22 June. Available online at: http://www.twnside.org.sg/title2/service211.htm (accessed 13 September 2005).
29.
HolmenH. (2003) ‘A green revolution for Africa—does it need to be so controversial?’, International Centre for Economic Research, Working Paper no.4/2003. Available online at: http://www.icer.it/docs/wp2003/Holmen4-03.pdf (accessed 4 April 2006).
PaarlbergR. (2002) ‘The real threat to GM crops in poor countries: Consumer and policy resistance to GM foods in rich countries’, Food Policy, 27:3, 247–250.
RossetP. (2000) ‘Lessons from the Green Revolution’, Food First, 20 April. Available online at: http://www.foodfirst.org/node/230 (accessed 4 April 2006).
42.
ShivaV. (2001) ‘Biopiracy: The theft of knowledge and resources’, in TokarB. (ed.), Redesigning Life? The Worldwide Challenge to Genetic Engineering (London: Zed Books), 283–289.
