Examining the Relationship between Institutionalized Racism and COVID–19

Association of American Medical Colleges. 2019. Diversity in the Physician Work–Force: Facts & Figures 2019. Washington, DC: Association of American Medical Colleges.

Bailey Zinzi D. , Krieger Nancy , Agénor Madina , Graves Jasmine , Linos Natalia , and Bassett Mary T. 2017. “Structural Racism and Health Inequities in the USA: Evidence and Interventions.” The Lancet 389(10077):1453–63.

Bartkus Viva Ona and Davis James H. 2010. Social Capital: Reaching Out, Reaching In. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Bourdieu Pierre . 1986. “The Forms of Capital.” Pp. 46–58 in Handbook of Theory of Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by Richardson John G. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Braveman Paula . 2006. “Health Disparities and Health Equity: Concepts and Measurement.” Annual Review of Public Health 27:167–94.

Burgess Diana J. 2011. “Addressing Racial Healthcare Disparities: How Can We Shift the Focus from Patients to Providers?” Journal of General Internal Medicine 26(8):828–30.

Burgess Diana J. , Bokhour Barbara G. , Cunningham Brooke A. , Do Tam , Gordon Howard S. , Jones Dina M. , Pope Charlene , Saha Somnath , and Gollust Sarah E. 2019. “Healthcare Providers’ Responses to Narrative Communication About Racial Healthcare Disparities.” Health Communication 34(2):149–61.

Burgos Giovani , Rivera Fernando I. , and Garcia Marc A. 2017. “Contextualizing the Relationship Between Culture and Puerto Rican Health: Towards a Place–Based Framework of Minority Health Disparities.” Sociology Department, Faculty Publications 622.

Carr Brendan , Bowman Ariel , Wolff Catherine , Mullen Michael T , Holena Daniel , Branas Charles C. , and Wiebe Douglas 2017. “Disparities in Access to Trauma Care in the United States: A Population–Based Analysis.” Injury 48(2):332–8.

Castle Billie , Wendel Monica , Kerr Jelani , Brooms Derrick , and Rollins Aaron . 2019. “Public Health's Approach to Systemic Racism: A Systematic Literature Review.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 6(1):27–36.

Chyu Laura , and Upchurch Dawn M. 2018. “A Longitudinal Analysis of Allostatic Load among a Multi–Ethnic Sample of Midlife Women: Findings from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation.” Women's Health Issues 28(3):258–66.

Collins Chiquita A. , and Williams David R. 1999. “Segregation and Mortality: The Deadly Effects of Racism?” Sociological Forum 14:495–533.

Dressler William W. , Oths Kathryn S. , and Gravlee Clarence C. 2005. “Race and Ethnicity in Public Health Research: Models to Explain Health Disparities.” Annual Review of Anthropology 34:231–52.

DuBois W. E. Burghardt . 2003. “The Health and Physique of the Negro American.” American Journal of Public Health 93(2):272–6.

Economic Policy Institute (2020). Black Workers Face Two of the Most Lethal Preexisting Conditions for Coronavirus–Racism and Economic Inequality. Retrieved July 31, 2020.

Eligon John , and Burch Audra . 2020. “Questions of Bias in Covid–19 Treatment Add to The Mourning for Black Families.” Nytimes.com. Retrieved July 23, 2020 from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/10/us/coronavirus-african-americans-bias.html.

Fairlie Robert W. and London Rebecca A. 2008. “IZA Discussion Paper No. 3708.2008. Race, Ethnicity, and the Dynamics of Health Insurance Coverage.” Research in Labor Economics 29:335–373.

Feagin Joe . 2006. Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Feagin Joe and Bennefield Zinobia . 2014. Systemic Racism and US Health Care. Social Science & Medicine 103:7–14.

Garg Shikha , Kim Lindsey , and Whitaker Michael O'Halloran Alissa , Cummings Charisse , Holstein Rachel , Prill Mila , Chai Shua J. , Kirley Pam D , Alden Nisha B. , Kawasaki Breanna , Yousey–Hindes Kimberly , Niccolai Linda , Anderson Evan J , Openo Kyle P , Weigel Andrew , Monroe Maya L. , Ryan Patricia , Henderson Justin , Kim Sue , Como–Sabetti Kathy , Lynfield Ruth , Sosin Daniel , Torres Salina , Muse Alison , Bennett Nancy M , and Billing Laurie . 2020. “Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory–Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019 — COVID–NET, 14 States, March 1–30, 2020.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69:458–64.https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6915e3.

Geronimus Arline T. , Hicken Margaret , Keene Danya , and Bound John . 2006. “Weathering” and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores Among Blacks and Whites in the United States.” American Journal of Public Health 96:826–33.

Greer Tawanda M. , Brondolo Elizabeth , and Brown Porschia . 2014. “Systemic Racism Moderates Effects of Provider Racial Biases on Adherence to Hypertension Treatment for African Americans.” Health Psychology 33(1):35–42.

Gupta Sujata . 2020. “Why African–Americans May Be Especially Vulnerable To COVID–19.” Science News. Retrieved July 23, 2020 frome https://www.sciencenews.org/article/coronavirus-why-african-americans-vulnerable-covid-19-health-race.

Halfors Denise D. , Iritani Bonita J. , Miller William C. , and Bauer Daniel J. 2007. “Sexual and Drug Behavior Patterns and HIV and STD Racial Disparities: The Need for New Directions.” American Journal of Public Health 97:125–32.

Hall William J. , Chapman Mimi V. , Lee Kent M. , Merino Yesenia M. , Thomas Tainayah W. , Payne Keith , Eng Eugenia , Day Steven H. , & Coyne–Beaseley Tamera . 2015. Implicit Racial/Ethnic Bias Among Health Care Professionals and Its Influence on Health Care Outcomes: A Systematic Review. American Journal of Public Health, 105(12), e60–e76.

Harris Kathleen M. , Gordon–Larsen Penny , and Chantala Kim . 2006. “Longitudinal Trends in Race/Ethnic Disparities in Leading Health Indicators from Adolescence to Young Adulthood.” Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine 160:74–81.

House James S. 1992. “Social Stratification, Health, and Well–Being over the Life Course.” Journal of Employee Assistance 1(2):268–308.

House James S. 2002. “Understanding Social Factors and Inequalities in Health: 20th Century Progress and 21st Century Prospects.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 43(2):125–42.

Kaiser Family Foundation. 2020. Changes in Health Coverage by Race and Ethnicity since the ACA, 2010–2018. Retrieved July 30, 2020.

LaVeist Thomas A. 1989. “Linking Residential Segregation to the Infant Mortality Race Disparity in U.S. Cities.” Sociology and Social Research 73:90–94.

LaVeist Thomas A. 1993. “Segregation, Poverty, and Empowerment: Health Consequences for African Americans.” Milbank Quarterly 71:41–64.

Lieberson Stanley. 1985 Making It Count: The Improvement of Social Research and Theory. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Link Bruce , and Phelan Jo . 1995. “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Extra Issue: 80–94.

Link Bruce . 2015. “Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health?” Annual Review of Sociology 41:311–30.

Massey Douglas , and Denton Nancy . 1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Matthew Dayna B. 2015. Just Medicine: A Cure for Racial Inequality in American Health Care. New York University Press.

McEwen Bruce S. , and Seeman T. 1999. “Protective and Damaging Effects of Mediators of Stress: Elaborating and Testing the Concepts of Allostasis and Allostatic load.” Annual New York Academy of Science 896:30–47.

Peek Monica E. , Odoms–Young Angela , Quinn Michael T. , Gorawara–Bhat Rita , Wilson Shannon C , and Chin Marshall H. 2010. “Racism in Healthcare: Its Relationship to Shared Decision–Making and Health Disparities: A Response to Bradby.” Social science & medicine 71(1):13.

Penner Louis A. , Blair Irene V. & Albrecht Terrance L. 2014. Reducing Racial Health Care Disparities: A Social Psychological Analysis. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 204–212.

Polednak Anthony P. 1993. “Poverty, Residential Segregation and Black/White Mortality Ratios in Urban Areas.” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 4:363–73.

Polednak Anthony P. 1996. “Trends in U.S. Urban Black Infant Mortality, by Degree of Residential Segregation.” American Journal of Public Health 86:723–6.

Rana Jamal S. , Khan Sadiya S. , Lloyd–Jones Donald M. , and Sidney Stephen . 2020. “Changes in Mortality in Top 10 Causes of Death from 2011 to 2018.” Journal of General Internal Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06070-z.

Rosenberg Charles E. 1989. What is an Epidemic? AIDS in Historical Perspective. Daedalus, 118(2), 1–17.

Scott Eugene . 2020. “4 Reasons Coronavirus Is Hitting Black Communities So Hard.” The Washington Post. Retrieved July 29, 2020 from (https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/04/10/4-reasons-coronavirus-is-hitting-black-communities-so-hard/).

Sequist Thomas D. , Cullen Theresa , and Acton Kelly J. 2011. “Indian Health Service Innovations Have Helped Reduce Health Disparities Affecting American Indian and Alaska Native People.” Health Affairs 30(10):1965–73.

Stafford Kat , Hoyer Meghan , and Morrison Aaron . 2020. “Outcry Over Racial Data Grows as Virus Slams Black Americans.” AP NEWS. Retrieved July 23, 2020 from (https://apnews.com/71d952faad4a2a5d14441534f7230c7c?fbclid=IwAR1plunY_qfeA2KrSU-PA1TuJobAwQh53a_Qlkf5dw0dWjz-iz85GA1FOt4).

Tung Elizabeth L. , Hampton David A. , Kolak Marynia , Rogers Selwyn O. , Yang Joyce P. , and Peek Monica E. 2019. “Race/Ethnicity and Geographic Access to Urban Trauma Care.” JAMA Network Open.

Ture Kwame & Hamilton Charles V. 1967. Black power: The Politics of Liberation in America. New York: Vintage Books.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2019. Composition of the Labor Force. Retrieved July 31, 2020.

Washington Harriet A. 2006. Medical Aparteid: the Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present. New York: Anchor Books.

Webb Hooper Monica , Nápoles Anna Maria , and Pérez–Stable Eliseo J. 2020. “COVID–19 and Racial/Ethnic Disparities.” Journal of the American Medical Association 323(24):2466–7.

Weber Max , Parsons Talcott , and Henderson A. M. 1964. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. New York: The Free Press.

Williams David R. , and Collins Chiquita . 2001. Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health. Public Health Reports 116:404–16.

Williams Veeda and Wilson Derek . 2016. “White Racial Framing and its impact on African American Male Mental Health.” Counseling African American Males: Effective Therapeutic Interventions and Approaches 253.

Yancy Clyde W. 2020. “COVID–19 and African Americans.” Journal of the American Medical Association 323(19):1891–2.