In this article, we review diverse studies of the antecedents, facial display, and social consequences of embarrassment. These studies indicate that embarrassment serves an appeasement function, reconciling social relations when they have gone awry. We then speculate about how embarrassment is elaborated into more complex social interactions, such as teasing and flirtation. We conclude by raising questions about the blush and embarrassment that await empirical consideration.
Abu-LughodL. (1986). Veiled sentiments. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2.
DarwinC. (1998). The expression of emotion in man and animals (with introduction, afterword, and commentaries by EkmanP.). New York: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1872).
3.
Eibl-EibesfeldtI. (1989). Human ethology. New York: Aldine de Gruyter Press.
4.
GoffmanE. (1956). Embarrassment and social organization. American Journal of Sociology, 62, 264–271.
5.
HaidtJ.KeltnerD. (1999). Culture and facial expression: Open-ended methods find more expressions and a gradient of recognition. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 225–266.
6.
KeltnerD. (1995). The signs of appeasement: Evidence for the distinct displays of embarrassment, amusement, and shame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 441–454.
7.
KeltnerD.BuswellB.N. (1997). Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasement functions. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 250–270.
8.
KeltnerD.GrossJ.J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 467–480.
9.
LearyM.R.BrittT.W.Cutlip, W.D.IITempletonJ.L. (1992). Social blushing. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 446–460.
10.
LewisM.SullivanM.W.StangerC.WeissM. (1989). Self development and self-conscious emotions. Child Development, 60, 146–156.
11.
RozinP. (1996). Towards a psychology of food and eating: From motivation to module to model to marker, morality, meaning, and metaphor. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 18–24.
12.
ShearnD.BergmanE.HillK.AbelA.HindsL. (1990). Facial coloration and temperature responses in blushing. Psychophysiology, 27, 687–693.