National conversations have focused recently on the need for colleges and universities to better address the dilemma of sexual assault and other forms of sexual violence on U.S. college campuses. Administrators, counselors, law enforcement, prevention advocates, and conduct officers struggle with efforts to prevent and intervene on these cases. A recent federal mandate requires campuses to actively implement comprehensive strategies and programs to address this epidemic of sexual violence. This includes targeted prevention programming to address sexual assault, dating violence, domestic violence, more commonly referred to as intimate partner violence, and stalking behavior. In the wake of this recent attention, university faculty and staff are faced with the dilemma of better understanding the motivations and risk factors associated with individuals and groups committing these types of attacks. Understanding these risk factors provides administrators, conduct officers, law enforcement, prevention advocates, and counselors with insight into preventative education and better informed policy and procedures to reduce sexual assault in the university setting.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbbeyA, ZawackiMA, BuckPO, et al. (2001). Alcohol and sexual assault. Alcohol Res Health., 25, 43–51.
2.
Adult Video News. (2003, January). AVN director's roundtable, pp. 45–68.
3.
AllenM, EmmersT, GebhardtL, et al. (2006). Exposure to pornography and acceptance of rape myths. J Commun., 45, 5–26.
4.
American College Health Association. (2008). Shifting the paradigm: Primary prevention of sexual violence [Internet]. (The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College Health Association, Linthicum, MD.) Retrieved on August 9, 2015, from www.acha.org/SexualViolence/
5.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) (American Psychiatric Publishing, Arlington, VA.)
6.
ArmstrongE, HamiltonL, SweenyB. (2006). Sexual assault on campus: A multilevel, integrative approach to party rape. Soc Stud Soc Probl., 53, 483–499.
7.
ASIS International and the Society for Human Resource Management. (2011). Workplace Violence Prevention and Intervention: American National Standard. Retrieved on May 1, 2012, from www.asisonline.org/guidelines/published.htm
Association of Threat Assessment Professionals. (2006). Risk Assessment Guideline Elements for Violence (RAGE-V): Considerations for Assessing the Risk of Future Violent Behavior. (Association of Threat Assessment Professionals, Sacramento, CA.)
10.
BanyardV, PlanteE, MoynihanM. (2004). Bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. J Commun Psychol., 32, 61–79.
11.
BanyardV. (2008). Measurement and correlates of prosocial bystander behavior: The case of interpersonal violence. Violence Victims., 23, 83–97.
12.
BarnettND, DiSabatoM. (2000). Training camp: Lessons in masculinity. In Just Sex: Students Rewrite the Rules on Sex, Violence, Activism and Equality. GoldJ, VillariS, eds. (Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD), pp. 197–210.
13.
BelfrageH, StrandS. (2008). Validation of the stalking assessment and management checklist (SAM) in law enforcement: A retrospective study of 153 cases of stalking in two Swedish police counties. Int J Police Sci Manage., 11, 67–76.
14.
BendixenaM, HenriksenbM, Kvitvik NøstdahlR. (2014). Attitudes toward rape and attribution of responsibility to rape victims in a Norwegian community sample. Nordic Psychol., 66, 168–186.
15.
BerkowitzA. (1992). College men as perpetrators of acquaintance rape and sexual assault: A review of recent research. J Am Coll Health., 40, 175–181.
16.
BerkowitzAD. (2004). An overview of the social norms approach. In Changing the Culture of College Drinking: A Socially Situated Prevention Campaign. LedermanL, StewartL, GoodhartF, et al. eds. (Hampton Press, Creskill, NJ), pp. 187–208.
17.
BieneckS, KraheB. (2011). Blaming the victim and exonerating the perpetrator in cases of rape and robbery: Is there a double standard?. J Interpers Violence., 26, 1785–1797.
18.
BleekerET, MurnenSK. (2005). Fraternity membership, the display of degrading images and rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles J Res., 53, 487–496.
19.
BoeringerS. (1999). Associations of rape-supportive attitudes with fraternal and athletic participation. Violence Against Women., 5, 81–90.
20.
BoswellA, SpadeJ. (1996). Fraternities and collegiate rape culture: Why are some fraternities more dangerous places for women?. Gender Soc., 10, 133–147.
21.
BurnS. (2009). A situational model of sexual assault prevention through bystander intervention. Sex Roles., 60, 779–792.
22.
CalhounF, WestonS. (2009). Threat Assessment and Management Strategies: Identifying the Howlers and Hunters. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.)
23.
CaputoAA, FrickPJ, BrodskySL. (1999). Family violence and juvenile sex offending: The potential mediating role of psychopathic traits and negative attitudes toward women. Criminal Justice Behav., 26, 338–356.
24.
CarrJ, VanDeusenK. (2004). Risk factors for male sexual aggression on college campuses. J Fam Violence., 19, 279–289.
25.
CowanG. (2000). Women's hostility toward women and rape and sexual harassment myths. Violence Against Women., 6, 238–246.
26.
CraissatiJ, McClurgG, BrowneK. (2002). Characteristics of perpetrators of child sexual abuse who have been sexually victimized as children. Sex Abuse J Res Treat., 14, 225–239.
27.
DeisingerG, RandazzoM, O'NeillD, SavageJ. (2008). The Handbook for Campus Threat Assessment and Management Teams. (Applied Risk Management, Boston, MA.)
28.
EhrensaftMK, CohenP, BrownJ, et al. (2003). Intergenerational transmission of partner violence: A 20-year prospective study. J Consult Clin Psychol., 71, 741–753.
29.
ForbesGB, Adams-CurtisLE, PakalkaAH, et al. (2006). Dating aggression, sexual coercion, and aggression-supporting attitudes among college men as a function of participation in aggressive high school sports. Violence Against Women., 12, 441–455.
30.
FeinRA, VossekuilB. (1998). Protective Intelligence and Threat Assessment Investigations: A Guide for State and Local Law Enforcement Officials. (National Institute of Justice, Washington, DC.)
31.
FoubertJD. (2000). The longitudinal effects of a rape prevention program on fraternity men's attitudes, behavioral intent, and behavior. J Am Coll Health., 48, 158–163.
32.
FoubertJD, NewberryJT, TatumJL. (2007). Behavior differences seven months later: Effects of a rape prevention program on first-year men who join fraternities. NASPA J., 44, 728–749.
33.
FoubertJD, PerryBC. (2007). Creating lasting attitude and behavior change in fraternity members and male student athletes: The qualitative impact of an empathy-based rape prevention program. Violence Against Women., 13, 70–86.
GaileyJA, ProhaskaA. (2006). “Knocking off a fat girl”: An exploration of hogging, male sexuality, and neutralizations. Deviant Behav., 27, 31–49.
37.
GlaslF. (1999). Confronting Conflict: A First-Aid Kit for Handling Conflict. A. (Hawthorn Press, Stroud, UK.)
38.
GodenziA, SchwartzMD, DeKesederyWS. (2001). Toward a gendered social bond/male peer support theory of university woman abuse. Crit Criminol., 10, 1–16.
39.
GordonWM. (2002). Sexual obsessions and OCD. J Sex Relat Ther., 17, 343–354.
40.
GrantJ, PintoA, GunnipM, et al. (2006). Sexual obsessions and clinical correlates in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry., 47, 325–329.
41.
GrossmanD. (1996). On killing: The psychological cost of learning to kill in war and society. (Little, Brown, and Company Back Bay Books, Lebanon, IN).
42.
HainbachS. (2014). University glee club temporarily retires “Rugby Road”: Gilliam says song does not promote “bad behavior.”. The Cavalier Daily. Retrieved February 15, 2015, from www.cavalierdaily.com
43.
HamiltonM, YeeJ. (1990). Rape knowledge and propensity to rape. J Res Pers., 24, 111–122.
44.
HareRD. (1985). Checklist for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. In Clinical Criminology. Ben-AronMH, HuckerSJ, WebsterCD, eds. (Clarke Institute of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, ON), pp. 157–167.
45.
HareRD. (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. (Multi-Health Systems, Toronto, ON.)
HelmusLMD, HansonRK. (2007). Predictive validity of the Static-99 and Static-2002 for sex offenders on community supervision. Sex Offender Treat., 2, 1–14.
49.
HinesDA. (2007). Posttraumatic stress symptoms among men who sustain partner violence: An international multisite study of university students. Psychol Men Mascul., 8, 225–239.
50.
HumphreyS, KahnA. (2000). Fraternities, athletic teams, and rape: Importance of identification with a risky group. J Interpers Violence., 15, 1313–1322.
51.
IconisR. (2006). Rape myth acceptance in college students: A literature review. Contemp Iss Educ Res., 1, 47–52.
JensenR. (2004). Pornography and Sexual Violence. (VAWnet, a project of the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence/Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence, Harrisburg, PA). Retrieved May 18, 2015 from www.vawnet.org
54.
JewkesR, SenP, Garcia-MorenoC. (2002). Sexual violence. In World Report on Violence and Health. KrugEG, DahlbergLL, MercyJA, et al., eds. (World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland), pp. 147–181.
55.
KafkaM. (2010). Hypersexual disorder: A proposed diagnosis for the DSM-V. Arch Sex Behav., 39, 377–400.
56.
KaninE. (1985). Date rapists: Differential sexual socialization and relative deprivation. Arch Sex Behav., 14, 219–230.
57.
KatzJ. (1995). Reconstructing masculinity in the locker room: The Mentors in Violence Prevention Project. Harvard Educ Rev., 65, 163–174.
58.
KilmartinC. (2000). Sexual Assault in Context: Teaching College Men About Gender. (Learning Publications, Homes Beach, FL.)
59.
KingkadeT. (2014a). Texas tech investigating frat for “no means yes, yes means anal’ sign.” The Huffington Post. Retrieved on February 15, 2015, from www.huffingtonpost.com
KingstonDA, MalamuthNM, FedoroffP, et al. (2009). The importance of individual differences in pornography use: Theoretical perspectives and implications for treating sexual offenders. J Sex Res., 46, 216–232.
62.
KnightR, Sims-KnightJ. (2009). Using Rapist Risk Factors to Set an Agenda for Rape Prevention. VAWnet, a project of the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence/Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence, Harrisburg, PA). Retrieved January 11, 2015, from www.vawnet.org
63.
KossM, GainesJ. (1993). The prediction of sexual aggression by alcohol use, athletic participation, and fraternity affiliation. J Interpers Violence., 8, 104–108.
64.
KraheB, TemkinJ, BieneckS. (2007). Schema-driven information processing in judgments about rape. Appl Cogn Psychol., 21, 601–619.
65.
KrebsCP, LindquistCH, WarnerTD. (2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study: Final Report. (National Institute of Justice, Washington, DC.)
66.
KroppP, HartS, LyonD. (2008). Guidelines for Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM) User Manual. (Proactive Resolutions Inc, Sydney, NSW, Australia.)
67.
KroppP, HartS, LyonD. (2002). Risk assessment of stalkers: Some problems and possible solutions. Criminal Justice Behav., 29, 590–616.
68.
KroppPR, HartSD, WebsterCW, et al. (1994). Manual for the Spousal Assault Risk Assessment Guide. (British Columbia Institute on Family Violence, Vancouver, BC.)
69.
KroppPR, HartSD, WebsterCW, et al. (1995). Manual for the Spousal Assault Risk Assessment Guide (2nd ed.). (British Columbia Institute on Family Violence, Vancouver, BC.)
70.
KroppPR, HartSD, WebsterCW, et al. (1998). Spousal Assault Risk Assessment: User's Guide. (Multi-Health Systems, Toronto, ON, Canada.)
71.
LarimerM, LydumA, AndersonB, et al. (1999). Male and female recipients of unwanted sexual contact in a college student sample: Prevalence rates, alcohol use, and depression symptoms. Sex Roles., 40, 295–308.
72.
LaVioletteA, BarnettO. (2000). It Could Happen to Anyone: Why Battered Women Stay. (Sage Publications, Newbury >Park, CA.)
73.
LohC, GidyczCA, LoboTR, et al. (2005). A prospective analysis of sexual assault perpetration: Risk factors related to perpetrator characteristics. J Interpers Violence., 20, 1325–1348.
74.
LuthernA, HerzogK. (2014). Police probe whether UWM fraternity members put drus in party drinks. Milwaukee–Wisconsin Journal Sentinel. Retrieved February 22, 2015, from www.jsonline.com
75.
MalamuthNM, AddisonT, KossM. (2000). Pornography and sexual aggression: Are there reliable effects and can we understand them?. Annu Rev Sex Res., 11, 26–91.
76.
MeloyJ, FisherH. (2005). Some thoughts on the neurobiology of stalking. J Forensic Sci., 50, 1–9.
77.
MeloyJR, MohandieK. (2014). Assessing threats by direct interview of the violent true believer. In The International Handbook of Threat Assessment. MeloyJR, HoffmannJ, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press.), pp. 388–398.
78.
MeloyJR, O'TooleME. (2011). The concept of leakage in threat assessment. Behav Sci Law. Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1002/bsl.986
79.
MorrisonS, HardisonJ, MathewA, et al. (2004). An Evidence-Based Review of Sexual Preventive Intervention Programs (U.S. DOJ Publication No. 207262). (National Institute of Justice, Washington, DC.)
80.
MouilsoE, CalhounK, RosenbloomT. (2013). Impulsivity and sexual assault in college men. J Violence Victims., 28, 429.
81.
MurnenS, KohlmanM. (2007). Athletic participation, fraternity membership, and sexual aggression among college men: A meta-analytic review. Sex Roles., 57, 145–157.
82.
MurnenSK, WrightC, KaluznyG. (2002). If “boys will be boys,” then girls will be victims? A meta-analytic review of the research that relates masculine ideology to sexual aggression. Sex Roles., 46, 359–375.
O'BrienJ. (2001). The MVP program: Focus on student athletes. In Sexual Violence on Campus. OttensAJ, HottelingK, eds. (Springer, NewYork, NY), pp. 141–161.
87.
Oddone-PaolucciE, GeniusM, ViolatoC. (2000). A meta-analysis of published research on the effects of pornography. In The Changing Family and Child Development. ViolatoC, Oddone-PaolucciE, GeniusM, eds. (Ashgate, Aldershot, UK), pp. 48–59.
88.
O'HearnHG, MargolinG. (2000). Men's attitudes condoning marital aggression: A moderator between family of origin abuse and aggression against female partners. Cogn Ther Res., 24, 159–174.
89.
OslandJ, FitchM, WillisE. (1996). Likelihood to rape in college males. Sex Roles., 35, 171–183.
90.
O'TooleME. (2000). The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective. (National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime, FBI, Quantico, VA.)
91.
O'TooleME, BowmanA. (2011). Dangerous Instincts: How Gut Feelings Betray. (Hudson Street Press, New York, NY.)
92.
PetersonZ, MuehlenhardC. (2004). Was it rape? The function of women's rape myth acceptance and definitions of sex in labeling their own experiences. Sex Roles J Res., 51, 129–144.
93.
RandazzoM, PlummerE. (2009). Implementing Behavioral Threat Assessment on Campus: A Virginia Tech Demonstration Project. (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.)
94.
ReidRC. (2013). Personal perspectives on hypersexual disorder. Sex Addict Compulsivity., 20, 4–18.
95.
Reitzel-JaffeD, WolfeDA. (2001). Predictors of relationship abuse among young men. J Interpers Violence., 16, 99–115.
96.
ResnickM, IrelandM, BorowskyI. (2004). Youth violence perpetration: What protects? What predicts? Findings from the national longitudinal student of adolescent health. J Adolesc Health., 35, 421–410.
97.
RozeePD, KossMP. (2001). Rape: A century of resistance. Psychol Women., 25, 295–311.
98.
RunkD. (2009). 2 killed in Henry Ford Community College shooting. The Huffington Post, April10.
ScheelED, JohnsonEJ, SchneiderM, et al. (2001). Making rape education meaningful for men: The case for eliminating the emphasis on men as perpetrators, protectors, or victims. Sociol Pract J Clin Appl Soc., 3, 257–278.
102.
SchewePA. (2002). Guidelines for developing rape prevention and risk reduction interventions. In Preventing Violence in Relationships: Intervention Across the Lifespan. SchewePA, ed. (American Psychological Association, Washington, DC), pp. 107–133.
103.
SchewePA, O'DonohueWT. (1993). Rape prevention: Methodological problems and new directions. Clin Psychol Rev., 13, 667–682.
104.
SeegersJ. (2010). The prevalence of sexual addiction symptoms on the college campus. Sex Addic Compulsivity J Treat Prev., 10, 247–258.
105.
SetoM, BarbareeH. (1997). Sexual aggression as antisocial behavior: A developmental model. In Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. StoffDM, BreilingJ, MaserJD, eds. (Wiley, New York, NY), pp. 524–533.
106.
SetoM, MaricA, BarbareeH. (2001). The role of pornography in the etiology of sexual aggression. J Aggress Sex Behav., 6, 35–53.
SinkovicM, StulhoferA, BozieJ. (2013). Revisiting the association between pornography use and risky sexual behaviors: The role of early exposure to pornography and sexual sensation seeking. J Sex Res., 50, 633–641.
SokolowB. (2001). Comprehensive Sexual Misconduct Judicial Procedures. (The NCHERM Group, Malvern, PA), pp. 1–34.
111.
SokolowB, LewisS. (2009). 2nd Generation Behavioral Intervention Best Practices. (The NCHERM Group, Malvern, PA.)
112.
SokolowB, LewisW, SchusterS, et al. (2014a). Threat Assessment in a Campus Setting. (The NCHERM Group, Malvern, PA.)
113.
SokolowB, LewisW, Van BruntB, et al. (2014b). Book on BIT. (The NCHERM Group, Malvern, PA.)
114.
SomaniS. (2014). OSI disbands phi kappa tau for continual violations. Technique. Retrieved on February 15, 2015, from http://nique.net
115.
SueD. (2010). Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation. (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.)
116.
SueD, CapodilupoC, TorinoG, et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. Am Psychol., 62, 271–286.
117.
SussmanS, LishaN, GriffithsM. (2011). Prevalence of the addictions: A problem of the majority or the minority?. Eval Health Profess., 34, 3–56.
118.
Teranishi-MartinezC. (2014). Engendered expressions of aggression: The role of gender, proprietary behaviors, and jealousy in intimate partner violence. Violence Gender., 2, 112–118.
119.
ToivB. (2015). Association of American Universities (AAU) Announces Sexual Assault Climate Survey. Retrieved on February 25, 2015, from www.aau.edu/news/article.aspx?id=15696
120.
TurnerJ, GellesM. (2003). Threat Assessment: A Risk Management Approach. (Routledge. New York, NY.)
121.
Van BruntB. (2012). Ending Campus Violence: New Approaches to Prevention. (Routledge, New York, NY.)
122.
Van BruntB. (2014). Harm to Others: The Assessment and Treatment of Dangerousness. (Routledge, New York, NY.)
123.
WarrenL, MullenP, McEwanT. (2014). Explicit threats of violence. In The International Handbook of Threat Assessment. MeloyJR, HoffmannJ, eds. (Oxford University Press, New York, NY), pp. 18–38.
124.
WhiteJW, SmithPH. (2004). A Longitudinal Perspective on Physical and Sexual Intimate Partner Violence Against Women. (National Institute of Justice, NCJ 199708, Washington, DC.)
125.
WillinghamA. (2013). Frat chapter suspended over “rapebait” email. HLN? Retrieved on May 24, 2015, from www.hlntv.com.
126.
ZappD. (2014). What Have We Learned About Sexual Assault from Over Half a Million Incoming College Students? (EverFi Coalition, Washington, DC.)
127.
ZuckermanM. (1994). Behavioral Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.)
