The first Zika virus outbreak in U.S. Virgin Islands identified 1031 confirmed noncongenital Zika disease (n = 967) and infection (n = 64) cases during January 2016–January 2018; most cases (89%) occurred during July–December 2016.
Methods and Results:
The epidemic followed a continued point-source outbreak pattern. Evaluation of sociodemographic risk factors revealed that estates with higher unemployment, more houses connected to the public water system, and more newly built houses were significantly less likely to have Zika virus disease and infection cases. Increased temperature was associated with higher case counts, which suggests a seasonal association of this outbreak.
Conclusion:
Vector surveillance and control measures are needed to prevent future outbreaks.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BarreraR, FelixG, AcevedoV, et al.Impacts of hurricanes Irma and Iaria on Aedes aegypti populations, aquatic habitats, and mosquito infections with dengue, chikungunya, and zika viruses in Puerto Rico. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2019; 100(6):1413–1420; doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0015
2.
BisanzioD, Dzul-ManzanillaF, Gomez-Danté SH, et al. Spatio-temporal coherence of dengue, chikungunya and zika outbreaks in Merida, Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018; 12(3):e0006298; doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006298
3.
BlackA, PotterB, DudasG, et al.Genetic characterization of the zika virus epidemic in the US Virgin Islands. bioRxiv, 2017; 113100; doi: 10.1101/113100
4.
Bonilla-SotoLA. Zika virus in the Americas: An environmental health perspective. P R Health Sci J, 2018; 37(Spec Issue):S5–S14.
5.
CamposMC, DombrowskiJG, PhelanJ, et al.Zika might not be acting alone: Using an ecological study approach to investigate potential co-acting risk factors for an unusual pattern of microcephaly in Brazil. PLoS One, 2018; 13(8):1–16; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201452
6.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Zika Virus Disease and Zika Virus Infection | 2016 Case Definition, Approved June 2016. 2020. Available from: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nndss/conditions/zika/case-definition/2016/06/ [Last accessed: June 7, 2020].
7.
ColbyK, SearsS, McEvoyE, et al.Notes from the field: School reporting of a dengue outbreak—St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, 2012. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2013; 62(20):413.
8.
FeldsteinLR, BrownsteinJS, BradyOJ, et al.Dengue on islands: A Bayesian approach to understanding the global ecology of dengue viruses. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 2015; 109(5):303–12; doi: 10.1093/trstmh/trv012
9.
FeldsteinLR, EllisEM, Rowhani-RahbarA, et al.The first reported outbreak of chikungunya in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 2014–2015. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2016; 95(4):885–889; doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0288
10.
FullerTL, CalvetG, EstevamCG, et al.Behavioral, climatic, and environmental risk factors for zika and chikungunya virus infections in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2015–16. PLoS One, 2017; 12(11):1–15; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188002
11.
HabyMM, PinartM, EliasV, et al.Prevalence of asymptomatic zika virus infection: A systematic review. Bull World Health Organ, 2018; 96(6):402-413D; doi: 10.2471/BLT.17.201541
12.
Krow-LucalER, BiggerstaffBJ, StaplesJE. Estimated incubation period for Zika virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis, 2017; 23(5):841–844; doi: 10.3201/eid2305.161715
13.
LoweR, GasparriniA, Van MeerbeeckCJ, et al.Nonlinear and delayed impacts of climate on dengue risk in barbados: a modelling study. PLoS Med, 2018; 15(7):1–24; doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002613
14.
MohammedH, RamosM, ArmstrongJ, et al.An outbreak of dengue fever in St. Croix (US Virgin Islands), 2005. PLoS One, 2010; 5(10):1–5; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013729
15.
MulliganK, DixonJ, SinnCLJ, et al.Is dengue a disease of poverty? A systematic review. Pathog Glob Health, 2015; 109(1):10–18; doi: 10.1179/2047773214Y.0000000168
16.
MuñozG, ChourioX, Rivière-CinnamondA, et al.AeDES: A next-generation monitoring and forecasting system for environmental suitability of Aedes-borne disease transmission. Sci Rep, 2020; 10(1):1–13; doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-69625-4
National Centers for Environmental Information. Find a Station | Data Tools | Climate Data Online (CDO) | National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). 2020. Available from: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/datatools/findstation [Last accessed: June 7, 2020].
19.
R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. 2015. Available from: https://www.R-project.org/ [Last accessed: May 20, 2020].
20.
ReesEE, PetukhovaT, MascarenhasM, et al.Environmental and social determinants of population vulnerability to Zika virus emergence at the local scale. Parasit Vectors, 2018; 11(1):1–13; doi: 10.1186/s13071-018-2867-8
21.
ReiterP. Climate change and mosquito-borne diseases. Environ Health Perspect, 2001; 109(Supplement 1):141–161.
22.
RosenbergR, LindseyNP, FischerM, et al.Vital signs: Trends in reported vectorborne disease cases—United States and Territories, 2004–2016. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2018; 67(17):496–501.
23.
SegerKR, RothJ, SchnallAH, et al.Community assessments for mosquito prevention and control experiences, attitudes, and practices—U.S. Virgin Islands, 2017 and 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2019; 68(22):500–504; doi: 10.1558/5/mmwr.mm6822a3
24.
SeidahmedOME, LuD, ChongCS, et al.Patterns of urban housing shape dengue distribution in Singapore at neighborhood and country scales. GeoHealth, 2018; 2(1):54–67; doi: 10.1002/2017GH000080
25.
US Census Bureau. Island Area: U.S. Virgin Islands 2010. 2010. Available from: https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2010/island_area/usvi.html [Last accessed: June 7, 2020].
26.
WhitemanA, LoaizaJR, YeeDA, et al.Do socioeconomic factors drive Aedes mosquito vectors and their arboviral diseases? A systematic review of dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and zika virus. One Health, 2020; 11:100188; doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100188
27.
WinokurOC, MainBJ, NicholsonJ, et al.Impact of temperature on the extrinsic incubation period of zika virus in Aedes aegypti. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2020; 14(3):1–15; doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008047
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
