The majority of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic in origin. Swine represent a potential reservoir for many novel pathogens and may transmit these to humans via direct contact with live animals (such as swine farmers and large animal veterinarians), or to the general human population via contaminated meat. We review recent emerging microbes associated with swine and discuss public health implications.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbuBakarS, ChangLY, AliAR, SharifahSHet al.Isolation and molecular identification of Nipah virus from pigs. Emerg Infect Dis, 2004; 10:2228–2230.
BanksM, HeathGS, GriersonSS, KingDPet al.Evidence for the presence of hepatitis E virus in pigs in the United Kingdom. Vet Rec, 2004; 154:223–227.
6.
BarretteRW, MetwallySA, RowlandJM, XuLet al.Discovery of swine as a host for the Reston ebolavirus. Science, 2009; 325:204–206.
7.
BattistiA, FrancoA, MerialdiG, HasmanHet al.Heterogeneity among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Italian pig finishing holdings. Vet Microbiol, 2009; 142:361–366.
8.
BensCC, VossA, KlaassenCH. Presence of a novel DNA methylation enzyme in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with pig farming leads to uninterpretable results in standard pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis. J Clin Microbiol, 2006; 44:1875–1876.
9.
BhatM, DumortierC, TaylorBS, MillerMet al.Staphylococcus aureus ST398, New York City and Dominican Republic. Emerg Infect Dis, 2009; 15:285–287.
10.
BonevaRS, FolksTM. Xenotransplantation and risks of zoonotic infections. Ann Med, 2004; 36:504–517.
11.
BridgerJC. Detection by electron microscopy of caliciviruses, astroviruses and rotavirus-like particles in the feces of piglets with diarrhea. Vet Rec, 1980; 107:532–533.
12.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Estimates of 2009 H1N1 Influenza Cases, Hospitalizations and Deaths in the United States, April–December12, 20092010a.
13.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Ebola-Reston virus infection among quarantined nonhuman primates—Texas, 1996. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1996; 45:314–316.
14.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Four pediatric deaths from community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus—Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997–1999. JAMA, 1999a. 282:1123–1125.
15.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. From the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases Division of Viral Diseases, 2010b.
16.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreak of Hendra-like virus—Malaysia and Singapore, 1998–1999. JAMA, 1999b. 281:1787–1788.
17.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preliminary FoodNet data on the incidence of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food—10 states, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2010c. 59:418–422.
18.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in populations previously at low risk–four states, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2005; 54:1201–1205.
19.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: outbreak of Nipah virus—Malaysia and Singapore, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1999c. 48:335–337.
ChuaKB, KohCL, HooiPS, WeeKFet al.Isolation of Nipah virus from Malaysian Island flying-foxes. Microbes Infect, 2002; 4:145–151.
25.
ColsonP, BorentainP, QueyriauxB, KabaMet al.Pig liver sausage as a source of Hepatitis E virus transmission to humans. J Infect Dis, 2010; 202:825–834.
26.
CunhaJB, de MendoncaMC, MiagostovichMP, LeiteJP. First detection of porcine norovirus GII.18 in Latin America. Res Vet Sci, 2010; 89:126–129.
27.
CunyC, NathausR, LayerF, StrommengerBet al.Nasal colonization of humans with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) CC398 with and without exposure to pigs. PLoS ONE, 2009; 4:e6800.
28.
DaltonHR, BendallR, IjazS, BanksM. Hepatitis E: an emerging infection in developed countries. Lancet Infect Dis, 2008; 8:698–709.
29.
DawoodFS, JainS, FinelliL, ShawMWet al.Emergence of a novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans. N Engl J Med, 2009; 360:2605–2615.
30.
DebastSB, van LeengoedLA, GoorhuisA, HarmanusCet al.Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 toxinotype V found in diarrhoeal pigs identical to isolates from affected humans. Environ Microbiol, 2009; 11:505–511.
31.
de BoerE, Zwartkruis-NahuisJT, WitB, HuijsdensXWet al.Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in meat. Int J Food Microbiol, 2009; 134:52–56.
DickieAS, BremnerDA, WongPY, NorthJD, RobertsonID. Streptococcus suis bacteraemia. N Z Med J, 1987; 100:677–678.
34.
DingX, LiTC, HayashiS, MasakiNet al.Present state of hepatitis E virus epidemiology in Tokyo, Japan. Hepatol Res, 2003; 27:169–173.
35.
Editorial Team. Ebola Reston virus detected pigs in the Philippines. Euro Surveill, 2009; 14.
36.
FarkasT, NakajimaS, SugiedaM, DengXet al.Seroprevalence of noroviruses in swine. J Clin Microbiol, 2005; 43:657–661.
37.
FeaginsAR, OpriessnigT, GuenetteDK, HalburPG, MengXJ. Detection and characterization of infectious Hepatitis E virus from commercial pig livers sold in local grocery stores in the USA. J Gen Virol, 2007; 88:912–917.
38.
Fernandez-BarredoS, GalianaC, GarciaA, VegaSet al.Detection of hepatitis E virus shedding in feces of pigs at different stages of production using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. J Vet Diagn Invest, 2006; 18:462–465.
39.
FieldH, BuntainD, DoneJT. Studies on pig mortality. I. Streptococcal meningitis and arthritis. Vet Rec, 1954; 66:453–455.
FongcomA, PruksakornS, NetsirisawanP, PongprasertR, OnsibudP. Streptococcus suis infection: a prospective study in northern Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 2009; 40:511–517.
GambottoA, Barratt-BoyesSM, de JongMD, NeumannG, KawaokaY. Human infection with highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus. Lancet, 2008; 371:1464–1475.
44.
GarkavenkoO, ObriadinaA, MengJ, AndersonDAet al.Detection and characterisation of swine hepatitis E virus in New Zealand. J Med Virol, 2001; 65:525–529.
45.
GartenRJ, DavisCT, RussellCA, ShuBet al.Antigenic and genetic characteristics of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans. Science, 2009; 325:197–201.
46.
GaydosJC, HodderRA, TopFHJr., AllenRGet al.Swine influenza A at Fort Dix, New Jersey (January–February 1976). II. Transmission and morbidity in units with cases. J Infect Dis, 1977a. 136,Suppl:S363–S368.
47.
GaydosJC, HodderRA, TopFHJr., SodenVJet al.Swine influenza A at Fort Dix, New Jersey (January–February 1976). I. Case finding and clinical study of cases. J Infect Dis, 1977b. 136,Suppl:S356–S362.
48.
GoorhuisA, BakkerD, CorverJ, DebastSBet al.Emergence of Clostridium difficile infection due to a new hypervirulent strain, polymerase chain reaction ribotype 078. Clin Infect Dis, 2008; 47:1162–1170.
49.
GottschalkM. Porcine Streptococcus suis strains as potential sources of infection in humans: an underdiagnosed problem in North America?J Swine Health Prod, 2004; 12:197–199.
50.
GottschalkM, SeguraM, XuJ. Streptococcus suis infections in humans: the Chinese experience and the situation in North America. Anim Health Res Rev, 2007; 8:29–45.
51.
GrahamDY, JiangX, TanakaT, OpekunARet al.Norwalk virus infection of volunteers: new insights based on improved assays. J Infect Dis, 1994; 170:34–43.
GreenKY, ChanockRM, KapikianAZ. Human caliciviruses. KnipeDM, HowleyPM. Field Virology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001; 841–874.
54.
GroomAV, WolseyDH, NaimiTS, SmithKet al.Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a rural American Indian community. JAMA, 2001; 286:1201–1205.
55.
GrosethA, FeldmannH, StrongJE. The ecology of Ebola virus. Trends Microbiol, 2007; 15:408–416.
56.
GuardabassiL, SteggerM, SkovR. Retrospective detection of methicillin resistant and susceptible Staphylococcus aureus ST398 in Danish slaughter pigs. Vet Microbiol, 2007; 122:384–386.
57.
HaleisA, AlfaM, GottschalkM, BernardKet al.Meningitis caused by Streptococcus suis serotype 14, North America. Emerg Infect Dis, 2009; 15:350–352.
58.
HanMG, SmileyJR, ThomasC, SaifLJ. Genetic recombination between two genotypes of genogroup III bovine noroviruses (BoNVs) and capsid sequence diversity among BoNVs and Nebraska-like bovine enteric calicivruses. J Clin Microbiol, 2004; 42:5214–5224.
59.
HarcourtBH, TaminA, HalpinK, KsiazekTGet al.Molecular characterization of the polymerase gene and genomic termini of Nipah virus. Virology, 2001; 287:192–201.
60.
HarcourtBH, TaminA, KsiazekTG, RollinPEet al.Molecular characterization of Nipah virus, a newly emergent paramyxovirus. Virology, 2000; 271:334–349.
61.
HowdenKJ, BrockhoffEJ, CayaFD, McLeodLJet al.An investigation into human pandemic influenza virus (H1N1) 2009 on an Alberta swine farm. Can Vet J, 2009; 50:1153–1161.
62.
HuiAC, NgKC, TongPY, MokVet al.Bacterial meningitis in Hong Kong: 10-years' experience. Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 2005; 107:366–370.
63.
ImadaT, Abdul RahmanMA, KashiwazakiY, TanimuraNet al.Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies against formalin-inactivated Nipah virus isolated from the lungs of a pig. J Vet Med Sci, 2004; 66:81–83.
64.
IndraA, LassnigH, BalikoN, MuchPet al.Clostridium difficile: a new zoonotic agent?Wien Klin Wochenschr, 2009; 121:91–95.
65.
JahrlingPB, GeisbertTW, DalgardDW, JohnsonEDet al.Preliminary report: isolation of Ebola virus from monkeys imported to USA. Lancet, 1990; 335:502–505.
KhannaT, FriendshipR, DeweyC, WeeseJS. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in pigs and pig farmers. Vet Microbiol, 2008; 128:298–303.
69.
KimSE, KimMY, KimDG, SongYJet al.Determination of fecal shedding rates and genotypes of swine hepatitis E virus (HEV) in Korea. J Vet Med Sci, 2008; 70:1367–1371.
70.
KoizumiY, IsodaN, SatoY, IwakiTet al.Infection of a Japanese patient by genotype 4 hepatitis e virus while traveling in Vietnam. J Clin Microbiol, 2004; 42:3883–3885.
71.
KopicJ, ParadzikMT, PandakN. Streptococcus suis infection as a cause of severe illness: 2 cases from Croatia. Scand J Infect Dis, 2002; 34:683–684.
72.
KuniholmMH, NelsonKE. Of organ meats and hepatitis E virus: one part of a larger puzzle is solved. J Infect Dis, 2008; 198:1727–1728.
73.
KuniholmMH, PurcellRH, McQuillanGM, EngleREet al.Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in the United States: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. J Infect Dis, 2009; 200:48–56.
74.
LeeGT, ChiuCY, HallerBL, DennPMet al.Streptococcus suis meningitis, United States. Emerg Infect Dis, 2008; 14:183–185.
75.
LeroyEM, EpelboinA, MondongeV, PourrutXet al.Human Ebola outbreak resulting from direct exposure to fruit bats in Luebo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 2009; 9:723–728.
76.
LeroyEM, KumulunguiB, PourrutX, RouquetPet al.Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Nature, 2005; 438:575–576.
77.
LewisHC, MolbakK, ReeseC, AarestrupFMet al.Pigs as source of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus CC398 infections in humans, Denmark. Emerg Infect Dis, 2008; 14:1383–1389.
78.
L'HommeY, SansregretR, Plante-FortierE, LamontagneAMet al.Genetic diversity of porcine Norovirus and Sapovirus: Canada, 2005–2007. Arch Virol, 2009; 154:581–593.
MaE, ChungPH, SoT, WongLet al.Streptococcus suis infection in Hong Kong: an emerging infectious disease?Epidemiol Infect, 2008; 136:1691–1697.
81.
MaW, LagerKM, VincentAL, JankeBHet al.The role of swine in the generation of novel influenza viruses. Zoonoses Public Health, 2009; 56:326–337.
82.
MaiNT, HoaNT, NgaTV, Linh leDet al.Streptococcus suis meningitis in adults in Vietnam. Clin Infect Dis, 2008; 46:659–667.
83.
MartinM, SegalesJ, HuangFF, GuenetteDKet al.Association of hepatitis E virus (HEV) and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) with lesions of hepatitis in pigs. Vet Microbiol, 2007; 122:16–24.
84.
MattisonK, ShuklaA, CookA, PollariFet al.Human and Noroviruses in swine and cattle. Emerg Infect Dis, 2007; 13:1184–1188.
85.
MauroyA, ScipioniA, MathijsE, MiryCet al.Noroviruses and sapoviruses in pigs in Belgium. Arch Virol, 2008; 153:1927–1931.
86.
MazokopakisEE, KofteridisDP, PapadakisJA, GikasAH, SamonisGJ. First case report of Streptococcus suis septicaemia and meningitis from Greece. Eur J Neurol, 2005; 12:487–489.
87.
MengXJ. Recent advances in hepatitis E virus. J Viral Hepat, 2010; 17:153–161.
88.
MengXJ, PurcellRH, HalburPG, LehmanJRet al.A novel virus in swine is closely related to the human hepatitis E virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 1997; 94:9860–9865.
89.
MiddletonDJ, WestburyHA, MorrissyCJ, van der HeideBMet al.Experimental Nipah virus infection in pigs and cats. J Comp Pathol, 2002; 126:124–136.
90.
MijovskiJZ, Poljsak-PrijateljM, SteyerA, Barlic-MaganjaD, KorenS. Detection and molecular characterization of noroviruses and sapoviruses in asymptomatic swine and cattle in Slovenian farms. Infect Genet E Vol, 2010; 10:413–420.
91.
MirandaME, KsiazekTG, RetuyaTJ, KhanASet al.Epidemiology of Ebola (subtype Reston) virus in the Philippines, 1996. J Infect Dis, 1999; 179,Suppl 1:S115–S119.
92.
MizuoH, YazakiY, SugawaraK, TsudaFet al.Possible risk factors for the transmission of hepatitis E virus and for the severe form of hepatitis E acquired locally in Hokkaido, Japan. J Med Virol, 2005; 76:341–349.
93.
MoodleyA, NightingaleEC, SteggerM, NielsenSSet al.High risk for nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among Danish veterinary practitioners. Scand J Work Environ Health, 2008; 34:151–157.
94.
MorikawaS, SaijoM, KuraneI. Current knowledge on lower virulence of Reston Ebola virus (in French: Connaissances actuelles sur la moindre virulence du virus Ebola Reston)Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis, 2007; 30:391–398.
95.
MunneMS, VladimirskyS, OteguiL, CastroRet al.Identification of the first strain of swine hepatitis E virus in South America and prevalence of anti-HEV antibodies in swine in Argentina. J Med Virol, 2006; 78:1579–1583.
96.
MyersKP, OlsenCW, GrayGC. Cases of swine influenza in humans: a review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis, 2007; 44:1084–1088.
97.
MyersKP, OlsenCW, SetterquistSF, CapuanoAWet al.Are swine workers in the United States at increased risk of infection with zoonotic influenza virus?Clin Infect Dis, 2006; 42:14–20.
98.
NaimiTS, LeDellKH, BoxrudDJ, GroomAVet al.Epidemiology and clonality of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Minnesota, 1996–1998. Clin Infect Dis, 2001; 33:990–996.
99.
NeumannG, NodaT, KawaokaY. Emergence and pandemic potential of swine-origin H1N1 influenza virus. Nature, 2009; 459:931–939.
100.
NeutkensD. New Clostridium Claiming Baby Pigs, National Hog Farmer Magazine. http://nationalhoqfarmer.com/mag/farming_new_clostridium_claiming/2001.
101.
NormanKN, HarveyRB, ScottHM, HumeMEet al.Varied prevalence of Clostridium difficile in an integrated swine operation. Anaerobe, 2009; 15:256–260.
102.
PalmerS, BrownD, MorganD. Early qualitative risk assessment of the emerging zoonotic potential of animal diseases. BMJ, 2005; 331:1256–1260.
PerchB, KristjansenP, SkadhaugeK. Group R streptococcus is pathogenic for man. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand B, 1968; 74:69–76.
105.
PhanTG, KaneshiK, UedaY, NakayaSet al.Genetic heterogeneity, evolution, and recombination in Noroviruses. J Med Virol, 2007; 79:1388–1400.
106.
PombaC, HasmanH, CavacoLM, da FonsecaJD, AarestrupFM. First description of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) CC30 and CC398 from swine in Portugal. Int J Antimicrob Agents, 2009; 34:193–194.
107.
PourrutX, SourisM, TownerJS, RollinPEet al.Large serological survey showing cocirculation of Ebola and Marburg viruses in Gabonese bat populations, and a high seroprevalence of both viruses in Rousettus aegyptiacus. BMC Infect Dis, 2009; 9:159.
108.
PuS, HanF, GeB. Isolation and characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Louisiana retail meats. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2009; 75:265–267.
109.
PurcellRH, EmersonSU. Hepatitis E: an emerging awareness of an old disease. J Hepatol, 2008; 48:494–503.
ReuterG, BiroH, SzucsG. Enteric caliciviruses in domestic pigs in Hungary. Arch Virol, 2007; 152:611–614.
112.
RobertsonID, BlackmoreDK. Occupational exposure to Streptococcus suis type 2. Epidemiol Infect, 1989; 103:157–164.
113.
RollinPE, WilliamsRJ, BresslerDS, PearsonSet al.Ebola (subtype Reston) virus among quarantined nonhuman primates recently imported from the Philippines to the United States. J Infect Dis, 1999; 179,Suppl 1:S108–S114.
114.
RosenkranzM, ElsnerHA, SturenburgHJ, WeillerCet al.Streptococcus suis meningitis and septicemia contracted from a wild boar in Germany. J Neurol, 2003; 250:869–870.
115.
RupnikM, WidmerA, ZimmermannO, EckertC, BarbutF. Clostridium difficile toxinotype V, ribotype 078, in animals and humans. J Clin Microbiol, 2008; 46:2146.
116.
RutjesSA, LodderWJ, Lodder-VerschoorF, van den BergHHet al.Sources of hepatitis E virus genotype 3 in The Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis, 2009; 15:381–387.
117.
SaifLJ, BohlEH, TheilKW, CrossRF, HouseJA. Rotavirus-like, calicivirus-like and 23-nm virus-like particles associated with diarrhea in young pigs. J Clin Microbiol, 1980; 12:105–111.
118.
SchlauderGG, DawsonGJ, ErkerJC, KwoPYet al.The sequence and phylogenetic analysis of a novel hepatitis E virus isolated from a patient with acute hepatitis reported in the united states. J Gen Virol, 1998; 79:447–456.
119.
SchwarzS, KadlecK, StrommengerB. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius detected in the BfT-GermVet monitoring programme 2004–2006 in Germany. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2008; 61:282–285.
120.
ScipioniA, MauroyA, VinjeJ. Thiry E. Animal Noroviruses. Vet J, 2007; 178:32–45.
SmithGJ, VijaykrishnaD, BahlJ, LycettSJet al.Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic. Nature, 2009a. 459:1122–1125.
124.
SmithTC, CapuanoAW, BoeseB, MyersKP, GrayGC. Exposure to Streptococcus suis among US swine workers. Emerg Infect Dis, 2008; 14:1925–1927.
125.
SmithTC, MaleMJ, HarperAL, KroegerJSet al.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain ST398 is present in midwestern U.S. swine and swine workers. PLoS ONE, 2009b. 4:e4258.
126.
SongerJG, AndersonMA. Clostridium difficile: an important pathogen of food animals. Anaerobe, 2006; 12:1–4.
127.
SongerJG, PostKW, LarsonDJ, JostH, GlockRD. Infection of neonatal swine with Clostridium difficile. Swine Health Prod, 2001; 8:185–189.
128.
SongerJG, TrinhHT, KillgoreGE, ThompsonADet al.Clostridium difficile in retail meat products, USA, 2007. Emerg Infect Dis, 2009; 15:819–821.
129.
Stuart-HarrisC, SchildG, OxfordJ. Influenza: The Virus and the Disease. London: Edward Arnold, 1985.
130.
SugiedaM, NagaokaH, KakishimaY, OhshitaTet al.Detection of Norwalk-like virus genes in the cecum content of pigs. Arch Virol, 1998; 143:1215–1221.
131.
SugiedaM, NakajimaS. Viruses detected in the cecum contents of healthy pigs representing a new genetic cluster in genogroup II of the genus “Norwalk-like viruses.”Virus Res, 2002; 87:165–172.
132.
TangJ, WangC, FengY, YangWet al.Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome caused by Streptococcus suis serotype 2. PLoS Med, 2006; 3:e151.
133.
TeoCG. Much meat, much malady: changing perceptions of the epidemiology of hepatitis E. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2010; 16:24–32.
134.
TianP, JiangX, ZhongW, JensenHNet al.Binding of recombinant norovirus like particles to histo-blood group antigen of cells in the lumen of pig duodenum. Res Vet Sci, 2007; 83:410–418.
135.
TownerJS, SealyTK, KhristovaML, AlbarinoCGet al.Newly discovered ebola virus associated with hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Uganda. PLoS Pathog, 2008; 4:e1000212.
136.
[USDA] United States Department of Agriculture. Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade, 2006. www.fas.usda.gov/dlp/circular/2006/2006%20Annual/Livestock&Poultry.pdf
137.
van de BeekD, SpanjaardL, de GansJ. Streptococcus suis meningitis in the Netherlands. J Infect, 2008; 57:158–161.
138.
van der PoelWH, VinjeJ, van Der HeideR, HerreraMIet al.Norwalk-like calicivirus genes in farm animals. Emerg Infect Dis, 2000; 6:36–41.
139.
Van HoeckeH, PietteA, De LeenheerE, LagasseNet al.Destructive otomastoiditis by MRSA from porcine origin. Laryngoscope, 2009; 119:137–140.
140.
van LooIH, DiederenBM, SavelkoulPH, WoudenbergJHet al.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in meat products, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis, 2007; 13:1753–1755.
141.
VincentAL, SwensonSL, LagerKM, GaugerPCet al.Characterization of an influenza A virus isolated from pigs during an outbreak of respiratory disease in swine and people during a county fair in the United States. Vet Microbiol, 2009; 137:51–59.
WangQH, HanMG, CheethamS, SouzaMet al.Porcine noroviruses related to human noroviruses. Emerg Infect Dis, 2005; 11:1874–1881.
144.
WangY, ZhangH, LiZ, GuWet al.Detection of sporadic cases of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in China using immunoassays based on recombinant open reading frame 2 and 3 polypeptides from HEV genotype 4. J Clin Microbiol, 2001; 39:4370–4379.
WeeseJS. Clostridium difficile in food—innocent bystander or serious threat?Clin Microbiol Infect, 2010; 16:3–10.
147.
WeingartlH, CzubS, CoppsJ, BerhaneYet al.Invasion of the central nervous system in a porcine host by nipah virus. J Virol, 2005; 79:7528–7534.
148.
WeingartlHM, BerhaneY, CzubM. Animal models of henipavirus infection: a review. Vet J, 2009; 181:211–220.
149.
WertheimHF, MellesDC, VosMC, van LeeuwenWet al.The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Lancet Infect Dis, 2005; 5:751–762.
150.
WertheimHF, NguyenHN, TaylorW, LienTTet al.Streptococcus suis, an important cause of adult bacterial meningitis in northern Vietnam. PLoS ONE, 2009; 4:e5973.
151.
[WHO] World Health Organization. Pandemic (H1N1) 2009—update 83. 2009a.
152.
[WHO] World Health Organization. Outbreak news. Ebola Reston in pigs and humans, Philippines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec, 2009b. 84:49–50.
153.
WichmannO, SchimanskiS, KochJ, KohlerMet al.Phylogenetic and case-control study on hepatitis E virus infection in Germany. J Infect Dis, 2008; 198:1732–1741.
154.
WiddowsonMA, RockxB, ScheppR, van der PoelVH, VinjeJ, van DuynhovenYT, KoopmansMP. Detection of serum antibodies to bovine norovirus in veterinarians and the general population in the Netherlands. J Med Virol, 176:119–128.
155.
WilcoxMH, MooneyL, BendallR, SettleCD, FawleyWN. A case-control study of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2008; 62:388–396.
156.
WillenburgKS, SentochnikDE, ZadoksRN. Human Streptococcus suis meningitis in the United States. N Engl J Med, 2006; 354:1325.
157.
WolfS, WilliamsonW, HewittJ, LinSet al.Molecular detection of norovirus in sheep and pigs n New Zealand farms. Vet Microbiol, 2009; 133:184–189.
158.
WoodeGN, BridgerJC. Isolation of small viruses resembling astroviruses and caliciviruses from acute enteritis of calves. J Med Microbiol, 1978; 11:441–452.
159.
WoolhouseME, Gowtage-SequeriaS. Host range and emerging and reemerging pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis, 2005; 11:1842–1847.
160.
WuJC, ChenCM, ChiangTY, SheenIJet al.Clinical and epidemiological implications of swine hepatitis E virus infection. J Med Virol, 2000; 60:166–171.
161.
WulfM, van NesA, Eikelenboom-BoskampA, de VriesJet al.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in veterinary doctors and students, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis, 2006; 12:1939–1941.
162.
WulfM, VossA. MRSA in livestock animals-an epidemic waiting to happen?Clin Microbiol Infect, 2008; 14:519–521.
163.
YaegerM, FunkN, HoffmanL. A survey of agents associated with neonatal diarrhea in Iowa swine including Clostridium difficile and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. J Vet Diagn Invest, 2002; 14:281–287.
164.
YeC, ZhuX, JingH, DuHet al.Streptococcus suis sequence type 7 outbreak, Sichuan, China. Emerg Infect Dis, 2006; 12:1203–1208.