Feedstock energy is the combustible energy content in a material. This article analyzes the consistency in nomenclature and reporting of feedstock energy with respect to life cycle assessments (LCA) within scientific reports, environmental product declarations (EPDs), product category rules (PCRs), LCA tools, standards, and other documents. The paving industry and other relevant industries were identified for comparative purposes and consistency. A detailed inventory was compiled for the United States, with representative documents from other countries. There is some consistency in definitions of feedstock energy and related terms, but little consistency in how they are reported and/or compiled in EPDs, PCRs, and LCAs. Feedstock energy is sometimes allocated to different life cycle processes; it may be considered a material or an energy resource; and there is uncertainty as to whether total energy includes feedstock energy. In addition, the possibility for double counting may exist. Future efforts at harmonization schemes, especially in EPD reporting, are recommended.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
International Organization for Standardization. ISO 14040: Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Principles and framework. Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
2.
International Organization for Standardization. ISO 14044: Environmental management—Life cycle assessment—Requirements and guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
3.
SimonenK, and HaselbachL. Environmental Product Declarations for building materials and products: U.S. policy and market drivers. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Life Cycle Assessment and Construction, July 10–12, 2012, Nantes, France.
4.
NgoAK.Environmental accountability: A new paradigm for world trade is emerging. In Life Cycle Assessment Handbook: A Guide for Environmentally Sustainable Products. Wiley‐Scrivener, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2012.
5.
International Organization for Standardization. ISO 14025: Environmental labels and declarations—Type III environmental declarations—Principles and procedures. Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
6.
YarosB. Life‐cycle thinking for wood and paper products. In Wood in Our Future: The Role of Life‐Cycle Analysis: Proceedings of a Symposium. National Academics Press, Washington, DC, 1997, pp. 11–17.
SartoriI, and HestnesAG. Energy use in the life cycle of conventional and low‐energy buildings: A review article. Energy Build, 2007; 39:249–257.
9.
VenturaA, and SanteroN. Organic materials for construction: Questioning the concept of feedstock energy. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Life Cycle Assessment and Construction, July 10–12, 2012, Nantes, France.
10.
SanteroN, MasanetE, and HorvathA. Life Cycle Assessment of Pavements: A Critical Review of Existing Literature and Research. SN3119a, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 2010.
11.
ButtAA.Life cycle assessment of asphalt pavements including the feedstock energy and asphalt additives. Licentiate dissertation, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2012.
12.
SimonenK.Life Cycle Assessment. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2014.
13.
KlöpfferW, and GrahlB. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): A Guide to Best Practice. Wiley, Weinheim, Germany, 2014.
14.
AllackerK, MathieuxF, ManfrediS, et al.Allocation solutions for secondary material production and end of life recovery: Proposals for product policy initiatives. Resour Conserv Recycl, 2014; 88:1–12.
UC‐Davis. UCPRC Pavement LCA Guideline: LCA Framework and Standard Assumptions. Pavement LCA Group at University of California Pavement Research Center, Davis and Berkeley, CA, 2010.
21.
British Standards. BS EN 15804:2012 Sustainability of construction works. Environmental product declarations. Core rules for the product category of construction products. London, 2012. https://shop.bsigroup.com/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030279721 (last accessed 12/26/2018).
22.
Athena Institute. A Life Cycle Perspective on Concrete and Asphalt Roadways: Embodied Primary Energy and Global Warming Potential. Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, Ontario, Canada, 2006.
UL Environment. EPD for North American Oriented Strand Board. Los Angeles, 2013.
26.
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF). PCR for Flooring: Carpet, Resilient, Laminate, Ceramic, Wood. Ann Arbor, MI, 2014.
27.
Athena Sustainable Materials Institute. User Manual and Transparency Document Impact Estimator for Buildings. v.5. Ontario, Canada, 2014.
28.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI). User's Guide, version 2.1. Cincinnati, OH, 2012.
29.
WilkinsonDB.Introduction to Life Cycle Assessments. Strategic Sustainability Consulting, Herndon, VA, 2012.
30.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES). Technical Manual and User Guide, version 4.0. Gaithersburg, MD, 2007.
31.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Building Industry Reporting and Design for Sustainability (BIRDS). New Residential Database Technical Manual. Gaithersburg, MD, 2015.
32.
Argonne NationalLaboratory, Center for Transportation Research Energy SystemsDivision. Greenhouse gas, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET). Life‐Cycle Model User Guide. Lemont, IL, 2016.
GreenDelta GmbH. OpenLCA 1.4. Comprehensive User Manual. Berlin, 2015.
35.
Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). Economic Input‐Output Life Cycle Assessment. Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA. http://www.eiolca.net/index.html (last accessed 4/22/2017).
36.
Recycled Materials Resource Center. The Pavement Life‐cycle Assessment Tool for Environmental and Economic Effects (PaLATE). http://rmrc.wisc.edu/palate/ (last accessed 3/11/2017).
37.
GeorgiaTech, School of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering. Fuel and Emissions Calculator (FEC). http://fec.ce.gatech.edu/ (last accessed 12/26/2018).
38.
ButtAA, MirzadehI, TollerS, et al.Life cycle assessment framework for asphalt pavements: Methods to calculate and allocate energy of binder and additives. Int J Pavement Eng, 2014; 15:290–302.
39.
EuropeanCommission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment andSustainability. ILCD Handbook (International Reference Life Cycle Data System): Analysis of Existing Environmental Impact Assessment Methodologies for Use in Life Cycle Assessment. JRC, Luxembourg, 2010.
40.
ASTM International. PCR for Slag Cement. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014.
41.
ASTM International. PCR for Manufactured Concrete and Concrete Masonry Products. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014.
42.
ASTM International. PCR for Portland, Blended Hydraulic, Masonry, Mortar, and Plastic Stucco Cements. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014.
43.
ASTM International. PCR for Expanded Shale, Clay, and Slate Lightweight Aggregate. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015.
44.
ASTM International. PCR for Precast Concrete. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015.
45.
ASTM International. PCR for Segmental Concrete Paving Products. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
46.
Carbon Leadership Forum. PCR for Concrete. Seattle, WA, 2012.
47.
ASTM International. PCR for Clay Brick, Clay Brick Pavers, and Structural Clay Tile. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
48.
ASTM International. PCR for Construction Aggregates: Natural Aggregate, Crushed Concrete, and Iron/Steel Furnace Slag. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
49.
Universal CementCo., Ltd. and Taiwan Green Building Material Council. Flame Retardant Building Materials of Fiber Cement/Fiber Reinforced Cement and Gypsum Board. Taiwan, 2015.
50.
The Norwegian EPD Foundation. PCR for Asphalt and Crushed Stone. Oslo, Norway, 2010.
51.
The International EPD® System. PCR for Concrete. Stockholm, 2013.
52.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Flexible Bitumen Sheets for Roof Waterproofing. Stockholm, 2016.
53.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Ready‐mix Concrete. Sweden, 2006.
54.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Aggregates. Stockholm, 2014.
55.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Gray Cements. Stockholm, 2014.
56.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Portland Cement II. Stockholm, 2014.
57.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Cement. Stockholm, 2016.
58.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Concrete. Stockholm, 2016.
59.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Ready Mixed Concrete Using Holcim Supplied Cement. Stockholm, 2016.
60.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Portland Cement CEM I. Berlin, 2012.
61.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Cement CEM II/A‐S. Berlin, 2013.
62.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for UK Average Portland Cement. Berlin, 2013.
63.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Calcium Aluminate Cement. Berlin, 2014.
64.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Concrete Admixtures—Plasticisers and Superplasticisers. Berlin, 2014.
65.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Concrete Admixtures—Retarders. Berlin, 2014.
66.
The International EPD® System. EPD for NCC Green Asphalt2 from Arlanda Asphalt Plant. Stockholm, 2017.
67.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for RESITRIX® SK W Full Bond und RESITRIX® SK Partial Bond. Berlin, 2014.
68.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Spunbond Reinforcements for Bituminous Membranes Made of Recycled Polyester. Stockholm, 2011.
69.
UL Environment. EPD for Concrete Masonry Unit. Los Angeles, 2016.
70.
SantosJ, FerreiraA, and FlintschG. Development and application of a lifecycle assessment model for pavement management. Proceedings of the Transport Research Arena, Apr. 14–17, 2014, Paris.
71.
SantosJ, FerreiraA, and FlintschG. A life cycle assessment model for pavement management: Methodology and computational framework. Int J Pavement Eng, 2015; 16:268–286.
72.
SantosJ, BryceJ, FlintschG, et al.A life cycle assessment of in‐place recycling and conventional pavement construction and maintenance practices. Struct Infrastruc Eng, 2015; 11:1199–1217.
73.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Ready‐Mix Concrete. Stockholm, 2014.
74.
The International EPD® System. PCR for Buildings. Stockholm, 2014.
75.
The Norwegian EPD Foundation. PCR for Technical‐Chemical Products for the Building and Construction Industry. Oslo, Norway, 2012.
76.
The International EPD® System. PCR for Construction Products and Construction Services. Stockholm, 2012.
77.
ASTM International. EPD for CMC Concrete Reinforcing Steel. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015.
78.
ASTM International. EPD for CMC Fabricated Concrete Reinforcing Steel. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015.
79.
ASTM International. EPD for CMC Light Structural Shapes. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015.
80.
ASTM International. EPD for CMC Merchant Bar. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015.
81.
ASTM International. EPD for Re‐Steel Fabricated Carbon‐Steel and Low‐Alloy Uncoated Rebar. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
82.
ASTM International. EPD for CMC Fabricated Steel Reinforcing Bar. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
83.
Canadian Standards Association (CSA). EPD for Cladding Products: NovikShake—Blended Colors, NovikStone DS and NovikStone SK. Toronto, 2017.
84.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Hot‐Drawn Reinforcing Steel for Concrete in Bars. Stockholm, 2015.
85.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF). Stockholm, 2015.
86.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Melamine‐faced Lightweight Boards Eurolight Decor—Wood Product. Berlin, 2014.
87.
The International EPD® System. EPD for NCC Composite Bridge. Stockholm, 2014.
88.
The International EPD® System. EPD for Folkhem's Concept Building. Stockholm, 2015.
89.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Pedestrian and Bicycle Bridge 15‐1787‐1 over Viskan in Project Road 27. Berlin, 2015.
90.
ASTM International. PCR for Interior Architectural Wood Door Leaves. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
91.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Wood Fiberboards. Berlin, 2014.
92.
InstitutBauen und Umwelt e.V. (IBU). EPD for Woodfibre Insulation Materials Produced in the Dry Process. Berlin, Germany, 2014.
93.
UL Environment. EPD for North American Softwood Plywood. Los Angeles, 2013.
94.
ASTM International. PCR for Asphalt Shingles, Built‐up Asphalt Membrane Roofing and Modified Bituminous Membrane Roofing. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014.
95.
ASTM International. PCR for Single Ply Roofing Membranes. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
96.
ASTM International. EPD for Carlisle Sure‐Flex KEE Roofing Membrane. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
97.
ASTM International. EPD for Carlisle Sure‐Flex PVC Roofing Membrane. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
98.
ASTM International. EPD for VersicoVersiFlex KEE Roofing Membrane. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
99.
ASTM International. EPD for VersicoVersiFlex PVC Roofing Membrane. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
100.
ASTM International. EPD for CFFA PVC Roofing Membrane. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014.
101.
UL Environment. EPD for Asphalt Shingles. Los Angeles, 2015.
102.
ASTM International. PCR for Decorative Overlays for Use on Composite Wood Panels (Draft for comments). ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
103.
The International EPD® System. PCR for Plastic Waste and Scrap Recovery (Recycling) Services. Stockholm, 2013.
