This article reviews properties and characteristics of soft ionic polymer–metal nanocomposites as soft biomimetic multifunctional distributed robotic materials, soft actuators, soft sensors, soft transducers and energy harvesters, and artificial muscles. After presenting some fundamental properties of biomimetic distributed nanosensing and nanoactuation of ionic polymer–metal composites, the discussion extends to some recent advances in manufacturing techniques, 3D fabrication of these soft actuators and sensors and some recent modeling and simulations, sensing and transduction, and product development. The relationships between the properties and their connection to the characteristics of soft actuators and sensors are also discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ShahinpoorM. Conceptual design, kinematics and dynamics of swimming robotic structures using ionic polymeric gel muscles. Smart Struct Mater, 1992; 1:91–94.
2.
ShahinpoorM, AdolfD, SegalmanD, WitkowskiW. Electrically controlled polymeric gel actuators. U.S. Patent #5250167 (1993).
3.
OguroK, AsakaK, TakenakaH. Actuator element. U.S. Patent Specification 5268082 (1993).
4.
OguroK, KawamiY, TakenakaH. Bending of an ion-conducting polymer by an electric stimulus at low voltage. J Micromachine Soc, 1992; 5:27–30.
5.
ShahinpoorM. Ionic polymer–conductor composites as biomimetic sensors, robotic actuators and artificial muscles—a review. Electrochim Acta, 2003; 48:2343–2353.
6.
ShahinpoorM, Bar-CohenY, SimpsonJO, SmithJ. Ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMCs) as biomimetic sensors, actuators and artificial muscles—a review. Smart Mater Struct, 1998; 7:15–30.
7.
KannoR, TadokoroS, TakamoriT, HattoriM. Linear approximate dynamic model of ICPF (ionic conducting polymer gel film) actuator. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Minneapolis, MN, 1996, pp. 219–25.
8.
NewburyK, LeoJD. Electromechanical modeling and characterization of ionic polymer benders. J Intell Mater Syst Struct, 2002; 13:51–60.
9.
ShahinpoorM, KimKJ. Ionic polymer-metal composites: I. Fundamentals. Smart Mater Struct, 2001; 10:819.
10.
Nemat-NasserS. Micromechanics of actuation of ionic polymer-metal composites. J Appl Phys, 2002; 92:2899.
FerraraL, ShahinpoorM, KimK, SchreyerB, KeshavarziA, BenzelE, LantzJ. Use of ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) as a pressure transducer in the human spine. Proc SPIE, 1999; 3669:394–401.
13.
BonomoC, FortunaL, GiannoneP, GrazianiS, StrazzeriS. A model for ionic polymer metal composites as sensors. Smart Mater Struct, 2006; 15:749–758.
14.
ChenZ, TanX, WillA, ZielC. A dynamic model for ionic polymer–metal composite sensors. Smart Mater Struct, 2007; 16:1477.
15.
NewburyKM, LeoDJ. Electromechanical modeling and characterization of ionic polymer benders. J Intell Mater Syst Struct, 2002; 13:51.
16.
Costa BrancoPJ, DenteJA. Derivation of a continuum model and its electric equivalent-circuit representation for ionic polymer–metal composite (IPMC) electromechanics. Smart Mater Struct, 2006; 15:378–392.
17.
TiwariR, KimKJ, KimSM. Ionic polymer–metal composite as energy harvesters. Smart Struct Syst, 2008; 4:549–563.
18.
FarinholtK, NewburyK, BennetM, LeoD. An investigation into the relationship between charge and strain in ionic polymer sensors. First World Congress on Biomimetics and Artificial Muscles, Albuquerque, NM, 2002.
19.
GrodzinskyAJ, ShoenfeldNA. Tensile forces induced in collagen by means of electromechanochemical transductive coupling. Polymer, 1977; 18:435–443.
GrodzinskyA, MelcherJ. Electromechanics of deformable charged polyelectrolyte membranes. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of Engineering in Medicine and Biology, Vol. 16, 1974, p. 485.
22.
GrodzinskyA, MelcherJ. Electromechanical transduction with charged polyelectrolyte membranes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 1976; 23:421–433.
23.
SegalmanDJ, WitkowskiWR, AdolfDB, ShahinpoorM. Theory and application of electrically controlled polymeric gels. Smart Mater Struct, 1992; 1:95–100.
24.
KimB, KimBM, RyuJ, OhI, LeeS, ChaS, PakJ. Analysis of mechanical characteristics of the ionic polymer metal composite (IPMC) actuator using cast ion-exchange film. Smart Struct Mater, 2003; 5051:486–495.
25.
NewburyKM, LeoDJ. Electromechanical modeling and characterization of ionic polymer benders. J Intell Mater Syst Struct, 2002; 13:51–60.
26.
ShahinpoorM. Ionic polymer-conductor composites as biomimetic sensors, robotic actuators and artificial muscles—a review. Electrochim Acta, 2003; 48:2343–2353.
27.
BennettMD, LeoDJ, WilkesGL, BeyerFL, PecharTW. A model of charge transport in ionic liquid swollen nafion membranes. Polymer, 2006; 47:6782–6796.
28.
DongB, GweeL, CruzDS, WineyKI, ElabdYA. Super proton conductive high-purity Nafion nanofibers. Nano Lett, 2010; 10:3785–3790.
EisenbergA, KimJ-S. Introduction to Ionomers. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
31.
TantMR, MauritzKA, WilkesGL. Ionomers: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications, 1st ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1997.
32.
KoldeJA, BaharB, WilsonMS, ZawodzinskiTA, GottesfeldS. Electrochemical Society Proceedings, Vol. 23, Princeton, NJ, 1995, p. 193.
33.
BourneJR, CalhounBH, PhillipsAK, MooreRB. Effect of ionomer processing procedures on the behavior of IPMC actuation: morphology-actuation relationships in processed pfsi membranes. Polym Prepr, 2006; 47:580–581.
34.
PageKA, LandisFA, PhillipsAK, MooreRB. SAXS analysis of the thermal relaxation of anisotropic morphologies in oriented Nafion membranes. Macromolecules, 2006; 39:3939–3946.
35.
LeeSJ, HanMJ, KimSJ, JhoJY, LeeHY, KimYH. A new fabrication method for IPMC actuators and application to artificial fingers. Smart Mater Struct, 2006; 15:1217.
36.
BonomoC, BottinoM, BrunettoP, Di PasqualeG, FortunaL, GrazianiS, PollicinoA. Tridimensional ionic polymer metal composites: optimization of the manufacturing techniques. Smart Mater Struct, 2010; 19:055002.
37.
KimJK, ShahinpoorM. A novel method of manufacturing three-dimensional ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMCs) biomimetic sensors, actuators and artificial muscles. Polymer, 2002; 43:797–802.
38.
KimKJ, ShahinpoorM. Development of three-dimensional polymeric artificial muscles. Smart Struct Mater, 2001; 4329:223.
39.
Heitner-WirguinCJ. Recent advances in perfluorinated ionomer membrane: structure, properties and applications. Membr Sci, 1996; 120:1–33.
40.
TiwariR, KimKJ. Disc-shaped ionic polymer metal composites for use in mechano-electrical applications. Smart Mater Struct, 2010; 19:065016.
41.
FujiwaraN, AsakaK, NishimuraY, OguroK, TorikaiE. Preparation of gold-solid polymer electrolyte composites as electric stimuli-responsive materials. Chem Mater, 2000; 12:1750.
42.
Nemat-NasserS, WuY. Comparative experimental study of ionic polymer–metal composites with different backbone ionomers and in various cation forms. J Appl Phys, 2003; 93:5255.
43.
GhielmiA, VaccaronoP, TrogliaC, ArcellaV. Sulfonated polyimides as proton conducting membranes. J Power Sources, 2005; 145:108–115.
44.
MauritzKA, MooreRB. State of understanding of Nafion. Chem Rev, 2004; 104:4535–4585.
45.
HicknerMA, GhassemiH, KimYS, EinslaBR, McGrathJE. Alternative polymer systems for proton exchange membranes (PEMs). Chem Rev, 2004; 104:4587–4612.
46.
KreuerKD. On the development of proton conducting polymer membranes for hydrogen and methanol fuel cells. J Membr Sci, 2001; 185:29–39.
47.
ShahinpoorM, MojarradM. Ionic Polymer Sensors and Actuators, US Patent Office, No. 6,475,639, Issued November5, 2002.
48.
PhillipsAK, MooreRB. Ionic actuators based on novel sulfonated ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer membranes. Polymer, 2005; 46:7788–7802.
49.
HuangCH, WuHM, ChenCC, WangCW, KuoPL. Preparation, characterization and methanol permeability of proton conducting membranes based onsulfonatedethylene-vinylalcohol copolymer. J Membr Sci, 2010; 353:1.
50.
LuJ, KimSG, LeeS, OhIK. A biomimetic actuator based on an ionic networking membrane of poly(styrene-alt-aleimide)–incorporated poly(vinylidene fluoride). Adv Funct Mater, 2008; 18:1290–1298.
51.
LeeJ-W, HongSM, KimbJ, KooCM. Novel sulfonated styrenic pentablock copolymer-silicate nanocomposite membranes with controlled ion channels and their IPMC transducers. Sens Actuators B, 2012:162:369–376.
52.
RajagopalanM, JeonJ-H, OhI-K. Electric-stimuli-responsive bending actuator based on sulfonated polyetherimide. Sens Actuators B, 2010; 151:198–204.
WangXL, OhIK, LiangX. Electro-active artificialmuscle based on irradiationcrosslinked sulfonated poly(styrene-ran-ethylene). Sens Actuators B, 2009; 145:635–642.
ShahinpoorM, KimKJ. Solid-state soft actuator exhibiting large electromechanical effect. Appl Phys Lett, 2002; 80:3445.
58.
NguyenVK, LeeJW, YooYT. Characteristics and performance of ionic polymer-metal composite actuators based on Nafion/layered silicate and Nafion/silica nanocomposites. Sens Actuators B, 2007; 120:529–537.
59.
NguyenVK, YooYT. A novel design and fabrication of multilayered ionic polymer–metal composite actuators based on Nafion/layered silicate and Nafion/silica nanocomposites. Sens Actuators B, 2007; 123:183–190.
60.
GuoDJ, FuSJ, TanW, DaiZD. A highly porous nafion membrane template from polyoxometalates-based supramolecule composite for ion-exchange polymer–metal composite actuator. J Mater Chem, 2010; 20:10159–10168.
61.
RaymondL, RevolJ-F, RyanDH, MarchessaultRH. Precipitation of ferrites in Nafion TM membranes. J Appl Polym Sci, 1996; 59:1073–1086.
LeeKS, JeonBJ, ChaSW. Performance enhancement of an ionic polymer metal composite actuator using a microcellular foaming process. Smart Mater Struct, 2010; 19:065029.
64.
LandiBJ, RaffaelleRP, HebenMJ, AllemanJL, VanDerveerW, GennettT. Single wall carbon nanotube–nafion composite actuators. Nano Lett, 2002; 2:1329–1332.
65.
LeeDY, ParkI-S, LeeM-H, KimKJ, HeoS. Ionic polymer-metal composite bending actuator loaded with multi-walled carbon nanoubes. Sens Actuat A, 2007; 133:117–127.
66.
LianH, QianW, EstevezL, LiuH, LiuY, JianT, et al.Enhanced actuation in functionalized carbon nanotube–Nafion composites. Sens Actuat B, 2011; 156:187–193.
67.
OhIK, JungJH, JeonJH, VadahanambiS. Electro-chemo-mechanical characteristics of fullerene-reinforced ionic polymer–metal composite transducers. Smart Mater Struct, 2010; 19:075009.
68.
JungJH, VadahanambiS, OhIK. Electroactive nano-composite actuator based on fullerene reinforced Nafion. Compos Sci Technol, 2010; 70:584–592.
YoshikoA, MochizukiA, KawashimaT, TamashitaS, AsakaK, OguroK. Effect on bending behavior of counter cation species in perfluorinated sulfonate membrane-platinum composite. Polym Adv Technol, 1998; 9:520–526.
72.
OnishiK, SewaS, AsakaK, FujiwaraN, OguroK. The effects of counter ions on characterization and performance of a solid polymer electrolyte actuator. Electrochim Acta, 2001; 46:1233–1241.
73.
Bar-CohenY, LearyS, YavrouianA, OguroK, TadokoroS, HarrisonJ, et al.Challenges to the application of IPMC as actuators of planetary mechanisms. In: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices. Proceedings of Smart Structures and Materials 2000. Bar-CohenY (ed.). Bellingham: SPIE Press, 2000, pp. 140–146.
74.
Nemat-NasserS, WuY. Comparative experimental study of ionic polymer–metal composites with different backbone ionomers and in various cation forms. J Appl Phys, 2003; 93:5255.
75.
KimKJ, ShahinpoorM. Ionic polymer-metal composites: II. Manufacturing techniques. Smart Mater Struct, 2003; 12:65–79.
ShahinpoorM, KimKJ. Effects of counter-ions on the performance of IPMCs. In: Smart Structure and Materials: EAPAD, Proc. SPIE 3669. Bar-CohenY (ed.) 1999, pp. 110–120.
78.
KobayashiT, OmiyaM. Deformation behaviors of ionic-polymer–metal composite actuator with palladium electrodes. Smart Mater Struct, 2012; 21:105031.
Bar-CohenY, LearyS, ShahinpoorM, HarrisonJO, SmithJ. Electro-active polymer (EAP) actuators for planetary applications. Proceedings of the SPIE's 6th Annual International Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, Newpor Beach, CA, March 1–2, 1999, Paper No. 3669–05.
81.
MaloneE, LipsonH. Freeform fabrication of electroactive polymer actuators and electromechanical devices. Proceedings of the 15th Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, TX, 2004, pp. 697–708.
82.
BarrambaJ, SilvaJ, Costa BrancoPJ. Evaluation of dielectric gel coating for encapsulation of ionic polymer–metal composite (IPMC) actuators. Sens Actuat A, 2007; 140:232–238.
83.
Nemat-NasserS, ZamaniS. Experimental study of Nafion-and Flemion-based ionic polymer metal composites (IPMCs) with ethylene glycol as solvent. Proc SPIE, 2003; 5051:233–44.
84.
Nemat-NasserS, ZamaniS, TorY. Effect of solvents on the chemical and physical properties of ionic polymer metal composites. J Appl Phys, 2006; 99:104902/1–104902/17.
85.
AkleB, BennetMD, LeoDJ. High-strain ionomeric–ionic liquid electroactive actuators. Sens Actuat A, 2006; 126:173–181.
86.
BennettMD, LeoDJ. Ionic liquids as stable solvents for ionic polymer transducers. Sens Actuators A, 2004; 115:79.
87.
WangJ, XuCY, TayaM, KugaAY. Flemion-based actuator with ionic liquid as solvent. Smart Mater Struct, 2007; 16:S214–S219.
88.
AkleBJ, BennettMD, LeoDJ, WilesKB, McGrathJEJ. Direct assembly process: a novel fabrication technique for large strain ionic polymer transducers. Mater Sci, 2007; 42:7031–7041.
89.
NohTG, TakY, NamJD, JeonJW, KimHM, ChoiHR, BaeS. Development of large-surface Nafion–metal composite actuator and its electrochemical characterization. Proc Smart Struct Mater, 2001; 4329:458–465.
90.
TakenakaH, TorikaiE, KawamiY, WakabayashiN. Solid polymer electrolyte water electrolysis. Int J Hydrog Energy, 1982; 7:397–403.
91.
MilletP, DurandR, PineriM. New solid polymer electrolyte composites for water electrolysis. J Appl Electrochem, 1989; 19:162–166.
92.
OguroK, AsakaK, TakenakaH. Actuator element. U.S. Patent Specification, 5,268,082 (1993).
93.
ShahinpoorM, MojarradM. Soft actuators and artificial muscles. U.S. Patent Specification, 6, 109,852 (2000).
94.
PunningA, KruusmaaM, AablooA. Surface resistance experiments with IPMC sensors and actuators. Sens Actuat A, 2007; 133:200–209.
95.
KobayashiT, OmiyaM. Deformation behaviors of ionic-polymer–metal composite actuator with palladium electrodes. Smart Mater Struct, 2012; 21:105031.
96.
FujiwaraN, AsakaK, NishimuraY, OguroK, TorikaiE. Preparation of gold–solid polymer electrolyte composites as electric stimuli-responsive materials. Chem Mater, 2000; 12:1750–1754.
97.
OnishiK, SewaS, AsakaK, FujiwaraN, OguroK. Morphology of electrodes and bending response of the polymer electrolyte actuator. Electrochim Acta, 2000; 46:737–743.
98.
ParkIS, KimSM, KimKJ. Mechanical and thermal behavior of ionic polymer–metal composites: effects of electroded metals. Smart Mater Struct, 2007; 16:1090–1097.
99.
NewburyKM, LeoDJ. Electromechanical modeling and characterization of ionic polymer benders. J Intell Mater Syst Struct, 2002; 13:51.
LeoD, FarinholtK, WallmerspergerT. Computational models of ionic transport and electromechanical transduction in ionomeric polymer transducers. Proc SPIE, 2005; 5759:170–181.
103.
KimKJ, ShahinpoorM. Ionic polymer-metal composites: II. Manufacturing techniques. Smart Mater Struct, 2003; 12:65–79.
104.
LeeJ, YooY. The structure and performance of ionic polymer-metal composite actuators prepared via electroless plating process using various alcohols. Macromol Symp Special Issue Adv Polym Emerg Technol, 2007; 249–250:56–60.
105.
ShahinpoorM, KimKJ. The effect of surface-electrode resistance on the performance of ionic polymer–metal composite (IPMC) artificial muscles. Smart Mater Struct, 2000; 9:543–551.
106.
ShahinpoorM, KimKJ. Novel ionic polymer-metal composites equipped with physically loaded particulate electrodes as biomimetic sensors, actuators and artificial muscles. Sens Actuat A, 2002; 96:125–132.
107.
ZhouW, LiWJ, XiN, MaS. Development of force-feedback controlled nafion micromanipulators. EAP Actuat Devices, 2001; 4329:401–410.
108.
SawadaS, KimuraM, TanakaH, MatsumotoT, OhtakeT, InoueS. Soft actuator using ionic polymer–metal composite composed of gold electrodes deposited using vacuum evaporation. Electron Device Lett IEEE, 2012; 33:1087–1089.
109.
HuieJC. Guided molecular self-assembly: a review of recent efforts. Smart Mater Struct, 2003; 12:264–271.
ZengT, ClausR, ZhangF, DuW, CooperKL. Ultrathin film actuators fabricated by layer-by-layer molecular self-assembly. Smart Mater Struct, 2001; 10:780.
114.
KimSH, OhKW, ChoiJH. Preparation and self-assembly of polyaniline nanorods and their application as electroactive actuators. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010; 116:2601–2609.
115.
AkleBJ, BennettMD, LeoDJ, WilesKB, McGrathJE. Direct assembly process: a novel fabrication technique for large strain ionic polymer transducers. J Mater Sci, 2007; 42:7031–7041.
116.
ChungC, FungP, HongY, JuM, LinC, WuT. A novel fabrication of ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMC) actuator with silver nano-powders. Sens Actuat B, 2006; 117:367–375.
117.
AkleBJ, BennettMD, LeoDJ. High-strain ionomeric-ionic liquid electroactive actuators. Sens Actuat A, 2006; 126:173–181.
118.
PalmreV, LustE, JänesA, KoelM, PeikolainenA, ToropJ, et al.Electroactive polymer actuators with carbon aerogel electrodes. J Mater Chem, 2011; 21:2577–2583.
119.
LiuS, MontazamiR, LiuY, JainV, LinMR, HeflinJR, ZhangQM. Layer-by-layer self-assembled conductor network composites in ionic polymer metal composite actuators with high strain response. Appl Phys Lett, 2009; 95:023505.
120.
PalmreV, BrandellD, MaeorgU, ToropJ, VolobujevaO, PunningA, et al.Nanoporous carbon-based electrodes for high strain ionomeric bending actuators. Smart Mater Struct, 2009; 18:095028.
121.
GogotsiY, NikitinA, YeH, ZhouW, FischerJE, YiB, et al. Nanoporous carbide-derived carbon with tunable pore size. Nat Mater, 2003; 2:591–594.
122.
LevitskyIA, KanelosP, EulerWB. Electromechanical actuation of composite materialfrom carbon nanotubes and ionomeric polymer. J Chem Phys, 2004; 121:1058–1065.
123.
MarieJ, ChenitzR, ChatenetM, Berthon-FabryS, CornetN, AchardP. Highly porous PEM fuel cell cathodes based on low density carbon aerogel as Pt support: experimental study of the mass transport losses. J Power Sources, 2009; 190:423–434.
