The Spurious Chicken and the Confounding Egg: Commentary on Cumulative Head Impact Exposure and Youth Football (Re: DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4413)

Montenigro P.H. , Alosco M.L. , Martin B.M. , Daneshvar D.H. , Mez J. , Chasisson C.E. , Nowinski C.J. , Au R. , McKee A.C. , Contu R.C. , McClean M.D. , Stern R.A. , and Tripodis Y. (2016). Cumulative head impact exposure predicts later-life depression, apathy, executive dysfunction, and cognitive impairment in former high school and college football players. J. Neurotrauma, 33, 1–13.

Norton D.F. , and Norton M.J. (2000). David Hume: A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford University Press: Oxford.

Mackie J.L. (1980). The Cement of the Universe: A Study of Causation. Oxford University Press: New York.

van Stralen K.J. , Dekker F.W. , Zoccali C. , and Jager K.J. (2010). Confounding. Nephron Clin. Pract. 116, c143–c147.

Christenfeld N.J.S. , Sloan R.P. , Carroll D. , and Greenland S. (2004). Risk factors, confounding, and the illusion of statistical control. Psychosom. Med. 66, 868–875.

Bennett D.A. , Wilson R.S. , Schneider J.A. , Evans D.A. , Beckett L.A. , Aggarwal N.T. , Barnes L.L. , Fox J.H. , and Bach J. (2002). Natural history of mild cognitive impairment in older persons. Neurology, 59, 198–205.

Deary I.J. , Corley J. , Gow A.J. , Harris S.E. , Houlihan L.M. , Marioni R.E. , Penke L. , Rafnsson S.B. , and Starr J.M. (2009). Age-associated cognitive decline. Br. Med. Bull. 92, 135–152.

German T. , and Hehman J. (2006). Representational and executive selection resources in 'theory of mind': evidence from compromised belief-desire reasoning in old age. Cognition, 101, 129–52.

Michaud M. , Balardy L. , Moulis G. , Gaudin C. , Peyrot C. , Vellas B. , Cesari M. , and Nourhashemi F. (2013). Proinflammatory cytokines, aging, and age-related diseases. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 14, 877–882.

Floyd R.A. , West M. , and Hensley K. (2001). Oxidative biochemical markers: clues to understanding aging in long-lived species. Exp. Gerontol. 36, 619–640.

Bosma H. , van Boxtel M.P.J. , Ponds R.W.H.M. , Houx P.H.H. , and Jolles J. (2003). Education and age-related cognitive decline: the contribution of mental workload. Educ. Gerontol. 29, 165–173.

Cowan P.A. , and Cowan C.P. (2015). Developmental psychopathology from family systems and family risk factors perspectives: implications for family research, practice, and policy, in: Developmental Psychopathology: Volume One: Theory and Method, 2nd ed. Cicchetti D. and Cohen D.J. (eds.). John Wiley: New York, pps. 530–587.

Moffitt T.E. , Poulton R. , and Caspi A. (2013). Lifelong impact of early self-control: childhood self-discipline predicts adult quality of life. Am. Sci. 101, 352–359.

Palermo M.T. , di Forno L.M. , Forno G.D. , Dominici C. , Vicomandi D. , Sambucioni A. , Proietti L. and Pasqualetti P. (2006). Externalizing and oppositional behaviors and Karatedo: the way of crime prevention. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 50, 654–660.

MacKinnon D.P. , Krull JL. , and Lockwood C.M. (2000). Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prev. Sci. 1, 173–181.

Elgar F. , McGrath P. , Waschbusch D. , Stewart S. , and Curtis L. (2004). Mutual influences on maternal depression and child adjustment problems. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 24, 441–459.

Hankin B.L. , Oppenheimer C. , Jenness J. , Barrocas A. , Shapero B.G. , and Goldband J. (2009). Developmental origins of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression: review of processes contributing to stability and change across time. J. Clin. Psychol. 65, 1327–1338.

Hammen C. , Shih J.H. , and Brennan P.A. (2004). Intergenerational transmission of depression: test of an interpersonal stress model in a community sample. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 72, 511–522.

Dadds M.R. , Sanders M.R. , Morrion M. , and Rebgetz M. (1992). Childhood depression and conduct disorder: II. An analysis of family interaction patterns in the home. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 101, 505–513.

Jacobvitz D. , Hazen N. , Curran M. , and Hitchens K. (2004). Observations of early triadic family interactions: boundary disturbances in the family predict symptoms of depression, anxiety, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in middle childhood. Dev. Psychopathol. 16, 577–592.

Woodward L.J. , and Fergusson D.M. (2001). Life course outcomes of young people with anxiety disorders in adolescence. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 40, 1086–1093.

Roberts B.W. , and Caspi A. (2003). The cumulative continuity model of personality development: striking a balance between continuity and change in personality traits across the life course, in: Understanding Human Development . Staudinger U.M. and Lindenberger U. (eds.). Springer: Boston, pps. 183–214.

MacCallum R.C. , Zhang S. , Preacher K.J. , and Rucker D.D. (2002). On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychol. Methods, 7, 19–40.

Simmons J.P. , Nelson L.D. , and Simonsohn U. (2011). False-positive psychology: undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychol. Sci. 22, 1359–1366.

Gelman A. , Carlin J.B. , Stern H.S. , and Rubin D.B. (2004). Bayesian Data Analysis, 2nd ed. Chapman & Hall: London.

Van de Shoot R. , Kaplan D. , Denissen J. , Asendorpf J.B. , Neyer F.J. , and van Aken M.A.G. (2014). A gentle introduction to Bayesian analysis: applications to developmental research. Child Dev. 85, 842–860.

Stroebe W. , and Strack F. (2014). The alleged crisis and the illusion of exact replication. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 9, 59–71.