Bronchiectasis, which is an abnormal and irreversible dilation of one or several bronchial segments, causes significant morbidity and impaired quality of life to patients, mainly as the result of recurrent and chronic respiratory infections. Staphylococcus aureus is a microorganism known for its high infectious potential related to the production of molecules with great pathogenic power, such as enzymes, toxins, adhesins, and biofilm, which determine the degree of severity of systemic symptoms and can induce exacerbated immune response. This review highlighted the clinical significance of S. aureus colonization/infection in bronchiectasis patients, since little is known about it, despite its increasing frequency of isolation and potential serious morbidity.
JochmannA., ArtusioL., RobsonK., NagakumarP., CollinsN., FlemingL., BushA., and SaglaniS.. 2016. Infection and inflammation in induced sputum from preschool children with chronic airways diseases. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 51:778–786.
3.
WhittersD., and StockleyR.. 2012. Immunity and bacterial colonisation in bronchiectasis. Thorax, 67:1006–1013.
4.
MulcahyM.E., GeogheganJ.A, MonkI.R, O'KeeffeK.M, WalshE.J, FosterT.J, and McLoughlinR.M.. 2012. Nasal colonisation by Staphylococcus aureus depends upon clumping factor B binding to the squamous epithelial cell envelope protein loricrin. PLoS Pathog. 8:e1003092.
5.
KingP., HoldsworthS., FreezerN., and HolmesP.. 2006. Bronchiectasis. Intern. Med. J. 36:729–737.
6.
LebeauxD., GhigoJ.-M, and BeloinC.. 2014. Biofilm-related infections: bridging the gap between clinical management and fundamental aspects of recalcitrance toward antibiotics. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 78:510–543.
7.
ThomerL., SchneewindO., and MissiakasD.. 2016. Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 11:343–364.
8.
BachertC., GevaertP., and van CauwenbergeP.. 2002. Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins: a key in airway disease? Allergy, 57:480–487.
9.
DöringG., FlumeP., HeijermanH., and ElbornJ.S.. 2012. Treatment of lung infection in patients with cystic fibrosis: current and future strategies. J. Cyst. Fibros. 11:461–479.
10.
HiramatsuK., ItoT., TsubakishitaS., SasakiT., TakeuchiF., MorimotoY., KatayamaY., MatsuoM., Kuwahara-AraiK., HishinumaT., and BabaT.. 2013. Genomic basis for methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Chemother. 45:117–136.
11.
AthanazioR.A., RachedS.Z, RohdeC., PintoR.C, FernandesF.L.A, and StelmachR.. 2010. Should the bronchiectasis treatment given to cystic fibrosis patients be extrapolated to those with bronchiectasis from other causes? J. Bras. Pneumol. 36:425–431.
12.
LeeA.L., BurgeA.T, and HollandA.E.. 2015. Airway clearance techniques for bronchiectasis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2015:CD008351.
13.
ContariniM., FinchS., and ChalmersJ.D.. 2018. Bronchiectasis: a case-based approach to investigation and management. Eur. Respir. Rev. 27:180016.
14.
KleineB., GatermannS., and SakincT.. 2010. Genotypic and phenotypic variation among Staphylococcus saprophyticus from human and animal isolates. BMC Res. Notes, 3:163.
15.
Sahuquillo-ArceJ., MéndezR., Hernández-CabezasA., and MenéndezR.. 2016. Non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: the long road to multidrug resistant bacteria. Community Acquir. Infect. 3:110–117.
16.
PasteurM.C., BiltonD., and HillA.T.. 2010. British thoracic society guideline for non-CF bronchiectasis. Thorax, 65,(Suppl 1)::i1–i58.
17.
PereiraM.C., AthanazioR.A, DalcinP.T.R, de FigueiredoM.R.F, GomesM., de FreitasC.G, LudgrenF., PaschoalI.A, RachedS.Z, and MauriciR.. 2019. Brazilian consensus on non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. J. Bras. Pneumol. 45:e20190122.
18.
FanerR., SibilaO., AgustíA., BernasconiE., ChalmersJ.D, HuffnagleG.B, ManichanhC., MolyneauxP.L, ParedesR., BrocalV.P, PonomarenkoJ., SethiS., DorcaJ., and MonsóE.. 2017. The microbiome in respiratory medicine: current challenges and future perspectives. Eur. Respir. J. 49:228.
19.
Hall-StoodleyL., and StoodleyP.. 2009. Evolving concepts in biofilm infections. Cell. Microbiol. 11:1034–1043.
20.
ManW.H., de Steenhuijsen PitersW.A.A, and BogaertD.. 2017. The microbiota of the respiratory tract: gatekeeper to respiratory health. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 15:259–270.
21.
PratC., and LacomaA.. 2016. Bacteria in the respiratory tract—how to treat? Or do not treat? Int. J. Infect. Dis. 51:113–122.
22.
RogersG.B., van der GastC.J, CuthbertsonL., ThomsonS.K, BruceK.D, MartinM.L, and SerisierD.J.. 2013. Clinical measures of disease in adult non-CF bronchiectasis correlate with airway microbiota composition. Thorax, 68:731–737.
23.
ColeP.1986. Inflammation: a two-edged sword—the model of bronchiectasis. Eur. J. Respir. Dis. Suppl. 147:6–15.
24.
Martínez-GarcíaM.A., Perpiñá-TorderaM., Román-SánchezP., and Soler-CataluñaJ.J.. 2005. Quality-of-life determinants in patients with clinically stable bronchiectasis. Chest, 128:739–745.
25.
PolverinoE., GoeminneP.C, McDonnellM.J, AlibertiS., MarshallS.E, LoebingerM.R, MurrisM., CantónR., TorresA., DimakouK., De SoyzaA., HillA.T, HaworthC.S, VendrellM., RingshausenF.C, SuboticD., WilsonR., VilaróJ., StallbergB., WelteT., RohdeG., BlasiF., ElbornS., AlmagroM., TimothyA., RuddyT., ToniaT., RigauD., and ChalmersJ.D.. 2017. European Respiratory Society guidelines for the management of adult bronchiectasis. Eur. Respir. J. 50:1700629.
26.
FinchS., McDonnellM.J, Abo-LeyahH., AlibertiS., and ChalmersJ.D.. 2015. A comprehensive analysis of the impact of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization on prognosis in adult bronchiectasis. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 12:1602–1611.
27.
LoebingerM.R., WellsA.U, HansellD.M, ChinyanganyaN., DevarajA., MeisterM., and WilsonR.. 2009. Mortality in bronchiectasis: a long-term study assessing the factors influencing survival. Eur. Respir. J. 34:843–849.
28.
McDonnellM.J., AlibertiS., GoeminneP.C, DimakouK., ZucchettiS.C, DavidsonJ., WardC., LaffeyJ.G, FinchS., PesciA., DupontL.J, FardonT.C, SkrbicD., ObradovicD., CowmanS., LoebingerM.R, RutherfordR.M, De SoyzaA., and ChalmersJ.D.. 2016. Multidimensional severity assessment in bronchiectasis: an analysis of seven European cohorts. Thorax, 71:1110–1118.
29.
EinarssonG.G., ComerD.M, McIlreaveyL., ParkhillJ., EnnisM., TunneyM.M, and ElbornJ.S.. 2016. Community dynamics and the lower airway microbiota in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, smokers and healthy non-smokers. Thorax, 71:795–803.
30.
BoytonR.J., ReynoldsC.J, QuigleyK.J, and AltmannD.M.. 2013. Immune mechanisms and the impact of the disrupted lung microbiome in chronic bacterial lung infection and bronchiectasis. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 171:117–123.
31.
CostaA.N., da CostaF.M, CamposS.V, SallesR.K, and AthanazioR.A.. 2018. The pulmonary microbiome: challenges of a new paradigm TT—microbioma pulmonar: desafios de um novo paradigma. J. Bras. Pneumol. 44:424–432.
32.
Von MutiusE.2014. Environmental microorganisms and lung health. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 11 Suppl, 1:S13–S15.
33.
AksamitT.R., O'DonnellA.E, BarkerA., OlivierK.N, WinthropK.L, DanielsM.L.A, JohnsonM., EdenE., GriffithD., KnowlesM., MeterskyM., SalatheM., ThomashowB., TinoG., TurinoG., CarrettaB., and DaleyC.L.. 2017. Adult patients with bronchiectasis: a first look at the US Bronchiectasis Research Registry. Chest, 151:982–992.
34.
FaverioP., StainerA., BonaitiG., ZucchettiS.C, SimonettaE., LapadulaG., MarruchellaA., GoriA., BlasiF., CodecasaL., PesciA., ChalmersJ.D, LoebingerM.R, and AlibertiS.. 2016. Characterizing non-tuberculous mycobacteria infection in bronchiectasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 17:1913.
35.
AngrillJ., AgustíC., de CelisR., RañóA., GonzalezJ., SoléT., XaubetA., Rodriguez-RoisinR., and TorresA.. 2002. Bacterial colonisation in patients with bronchiectasis: microbiological pattern and risk factors. Thorax, 57:15–19.
36.
AhmedB., CoxM.J, CuthbertsonL., JamesP., CooksonW.O.C, DaviesJ.C, MoffattM.F, and BushA.. 2019. Longitudinal development of the airway microbiota in infants with cystic fibrosis. Sci. Rep. 9:5143.
37.
Euzéby, J.P. 1997. List of bacterial names with standing in nomenclature: a folder available on the internet. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47:590–592.
38.
PlataK., RosatoA.E, and WegrzynG.. 2009. Staphylococcus aureus as an infectious agent: overview of biochemistry and molecular genetics of its pathogenicity. Acta Biochim. Pol. 56:597–612.
39.
CorrealJ., MarquesE., WerneckG., LeãoR., and DamascoP.. 2013. Staphylococcus aureus infections: change in epidemiology at Pedro Ernesto University Hospital. Revista HUPE, 12:31–46.
40.
MusherD.M., LammN., DarouicheR.O, YoungE.J, HamillR.J, and LandonG.C.. 1994. The current spectrum of Staphylococcus aureus infection in a tertiary care hospital. Medicine (Baltimore), 73:186–208.
41.
CaudriD., TurkovicL., NgJ., de KlerkN.H, RosenowT., HallG.L, RanganathanS.C, SlyP.D, and StickS.M.. 2018. The association between Staphylococcus aureus and subsequent bronchiectasis in children with cystic fibrosis. J. Cyst. Fibros. 17:462–469.
42.
ShahP.L., MawdsleyS., NashK., CullinanP., ColeP.J, and WilsonR.. 1999. Determinants of chronic infection with Staphylococcus aureus in patients with bronchiectasis. Eur. Respir. J. 14:1340–1344.
43.
MiaoX.Y., Bin JiX., LuH.W, YangJ.W, and XuJ.F.. 2015. Distribution of major pathogens from sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in patients with noncystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: a systematic review. Chin. Med. J. (Engl). 128:2792–2797.
44.
SomayajiR., RamosK.J, and HoffmanL.R.. 2018. Understanding the role of Staphylococcus aureus in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: where are we now? Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 15:310–311.
45.
GossC.H., and MuhlebachM.S.. 2011. Review: Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA in cystic fibrosis. J. Cyst. Fibros. 10:298–306.
46.
Andersen, D.H. 1938. Cystic fibrosis of the pancreas and its relation to celiac disease. Am. J. Dis. Child. 56:344–399.
47.
BarthA.L., and PittT.L. 1998. Microbial pathogens associated with cystic fibrosis: special focus on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Braz. J. Infect. Dis. 2:43–61.
48.
HauserA.R., JainM., Bar-MeirM., and McColleyS.A.. 2011. Clinical significance of microbial infection and adaptation in cystic fibrosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 24:29–70.
49.
LiPuma, J.J. 2010. The changing microbial epidemiology in cystic fibrosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 23:299–323.
50.
AbmanS.H., OgleJ.W, HarbeckR.J, Butler-SimonN., HammondK.B, and AccursoF.J.. 1991. Early bacteriologic, immunologic, and clinical courses of young infants with cystic fibrosis identified by neonatal screening. J. Pediatr. 119:211–217.
51.
LyczakJ.B., CannonC.L, and PierG.B.. 2002. Lung infections associated with cystic fibrosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15:194–222.
52.
ZetolaN., FrancisJ.S, NuermbergerE.L, and BishaiW.R.. 2005. Community-acquired meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an emerging threat. Lancet Infect. Dis. 5:75–286.
53.
SchneiderM., MühlemannK., DrozS., CouzinetS., CasaultaC., and ZimmerliS.. 2008. Clinical characteristics associated with isolation of small-colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from respiratory secretions of patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:1832–1834.
54.
Kahl, B.C. 2014. Small colony variants (SCVs) of Staphylococcus aureus—a bacterial survival strategy. Infect. Genet. Evol. 21:515–522.
55.
TuchscherrL., MedinaE., HussainM., VölkerW., HeitmannV., NiemannS., HolzingerD., RothJ., ProctorR.A, BeckerK., PetersG., and LöfflerB.. 2011. Staphylococcus aureus phenotype switching: an effective bacterial strategy to escape host immune response and establish a chronic infection. EMBO Mol. Med. 3:129–141.
56.
SinhaB., and FraunholzM.. 2010. Staphylococcus aureus host cell invasion and post-invasion events. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 300:170–175.
57.
KrishnaS., and MillerL.S.. 2012. Host-pathogen interactions between the skin and Staphylococcus aureus. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 15:28–35.
58.
MitchellG., FugèreA., Pépin GaudreauK., BrouilletteE., FrostE.H, CantinA.M, and MalouinF.. 2013. SigB is a dominant regulator of virulence in Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants. PLoS One, 8:e65018.
59.
SpezialeP., PietrocolaG., FosterT.J, and GeogheganJ.A.. 2014. Protein-based biofilm matrices in staphylococci. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 4:171.
60.
VandecasteeleS.J., PeetermansW.E, MerckxR.R, RijndersB.J.A, and Van EldereJ.. 2003. Reliability of the ica, aap and atlE genes in the discrimination between invasive, colonizing and contaminant Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates in the diagnosis of catheter-related infections. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9:114–119.
61.
VancraeynestD., HermansK., and HaesebrouckF.. 2004. Genotypic and phenotypic screening of high and low virulence Staphylococcus aureus isolates from rabbits for biofilm formation and MSCRAMMs. Vet. Microbiol. 103:241–247.
62.
ClarkeS.R., and FosterS.J.. 2006. Surface adhesins of Staphylococcus aureus. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 51:187–224.
63.
SpezialeP., PietrocolaG., RindiS., ProvenzanoM., ProvenzaG., Di PotoA., VisaiL., and ArciolaC.R.. 2009. Structural and functional role of Staphylococcus aureus surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules of the host. Future Microbiol. 4:1337–1352.
64.
HaimM., TrostA., MaierC.J, AchatzG., FeichtnerS., HintnerH., BauerJ.W, and K. Önder. 2010. Cytokeratin 8 interacts with clumping factor B: a new possible virulence factor target. Microbiology, 156,(Pt 12)::3710–3721.
65.
HairP.S., EchagueC.G, ShollA.M, WatkinsJ.A, GeogheganJ.A, FosterT.J, and CunnionK.M.. 2010. Clumping factor A interaction with complement factor I increases C3b cleavage on the bacterial surface of Staphylococcus aureus and decreases complement-mediated phagocytosis. Infect. Immun. 78:1717–1727.
66.
GötzF.2002. Staphylococcus and biofilms. Mol. Microbiol. 43:1367–1378.
67.
O'NeillE., PozziC., HoustonP., SmythD., HumphreysH., RobinsonD.A, and O'GaraJ.P.. 2007. Association between methicillin susceptibility and biofilm regulation in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from device-related infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 45:1379–1388.
68.
DonlanR.M., and CostertonJ.W.. 2002. Biofilms: survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15:167–193.
69.
MolloyS.2012. Biofilms: biofilms take shape. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 10:162.
70.
VuongC., and OttoM.. 2002. Staphylococcus epidermidis infections. Microbes Infect. 4:481–489.
71.
FitzpatrickF., HumphreysH., and O'GaraJ.P.. 2005. The genetics of staphylococcal biofilm formation—will a greater understanding of pathogenesis lead to better management of device-related infection? Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 11:967–973.
72.
MoormeierD.E., and BaylesK.W.. 2017. Staphylococcus aureus biofilm: a complex developmental organism. Mol. Microbiol. 104:365–376.
73.
ConlonK.M., HumphreysH., and O'GaraJ.P.. 2002. Regulation of icaR gene expression in Staphylococcus epidermidis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 216:171–177.
74.
O'GaraJ.P., and HumphreysH.. 2001. Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms: importance and implications. J. Med. Microbiol. 50:582–587.
75.
DobinskyS., BartschtK., and MackD.. 2002. Influence of Tn917 insertion on transcription of the icaADBC operon in six biofilm-negative transposon mutants of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Plasmid, 47:10–17.
76.
VuongC., KocianovaS., VoyichJ.M, YaoY., FischerE.R, DeLeoF.R, and OttoM.. 2004. A crucial role for exopolysaccharide modification in bacterial biofilm formation, immune evasion, and virulence. J. Biol. Chem. 279:54881–54886.
LavertyG., GormanS.P, and GilmoreB.F.. 2013. Biomolecular mechanisms of staphylococcal biofilm formation. Future Microbiol. 8:509–524.
79.
CegelskiL., MarshallG.R, EldridgeG.R, and HultgrenS.J.. 2008. The biology and future prospects of antivirulence therapies. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 6:17–27.
80.
PostJ.C., HillerN.L, NisticoL., StoodleyP., and EhrlichG.D.. 2007. The role of biofilms in otolaryngologic infections: update 2007. Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 15:347–351.
81.
EspositoS., PennoniG., MencariniV., PalladinoN., PecciniL., and PrincipiN.. 2019. Antimicrobial treatment of Staphylococcus aureus in patients with cystic fibrosis. Front. Pharmacol. 10:849.
82.
Cakir AktasN., ErturanZ., KaratunaO., and Karahasan YagciA.. 2013. Panton-Valentine leukocidin and biofilm production of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from respiratory tract. J. Infect. Dev. Ctries. 7:888–891.
83.
ThurlowL.R., HankeM.L, FritzT., AngleA., AldrichA., WilliamsS.H, EngebretsenI.L, BaylesK.W, HorswillA.R, and KielianT.. 2011. Staphylococcus aureus biofilms prevent macrophage phagocytosis and attenuate inflammation in vivo. J. Immunol. 186:6585–6596.
84.
SchwartbeckB., BirtelJ., TreffonJ., LanghankiL., MellmannA., KaleD., KahlJ., HirschhausenN., NeumannC., LeeJ.C, GötzF., RohdeH., HenkeH., KüsterP., PetersG., and KahlB.C.. 2016. Dynamic in vivo mutations within the ica operon during persistence of Staphylococcus aureus in the airways of cystic fibrosis patients. PLoS Pathog. 12:e1006024.
85.
MeterskyM.L., AksamitT.R, BarkerA., ChoateR., DaleyC.L, DanielsL.A, DiMangoA., EdenE., GriffithD., JohnsonM., KnowlesM., O'DonnellA.E, OlivierK., SalatheM., ThomashowB., TinoG., TurinoG., WinthropK.L, and ManninoD.. 2018. The prevalence and significance of Staphylococcus aureus in patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 15:365–370.
86.
BergdollM., SurgallaM., and DackG.. 1959. Staphylococcal enterotoxin. Identification of a specific precipitating antibody with enterotoxin-neutralizing property. J. Immunol. 83:334–338.
87.
OrtegaE., AbriouelH., LucasR., and GálvezA.. 2010. Multiple roles of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins: pathogenicity, superantigenic activity, and correlation to antibiotic resistance. Toxins (Basel), 2:2117–2131.
88.
WilsonG.J., SeoK.S, CartwrightR.A, ConnelleyT., Chuang-SmithO.N, MerrimanJ.A, GuinaneC.M, ParkJ.Y, BohachG.A, SchlievertP.M, MorrisonW.I, and FitzgeraldJ.R.. 2011. A novel core genome-encoded superantigen contributes to lethality of community-associated MRSA necrotizing pneumonia. PLoS Pathog. 7:e1002271.
89.
Le LoirY., BaronF., and GautierM.. 2003. Staphylococcus aureus and food poisoning. Genet. Mol. Res. 2:63–76.
90.
LeRicheT., BlackA.Y, and FlemingN.A.. 2012. Toxic shock syndrome of a probable gynecologic source in an adolescent: a case report and review of the literature. J. Pediatr. Adolesc. Gynecol. 25:e133–e137.
91.
XuS.X., and McCormickJ.K.. 2012. Staphylococcal superantigens in colonization and disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2:52.
MehrotraM., WangG., and JohnsonW.M.. 2000. Multiplex PCR for detection of genes for Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, and methicillin resistance. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:1032–1035.
94.
FraserJ.D., and ProftT.. 2008. The bacterial superantigen and superantigen-like proteins. Immunol. Rev. 225:226–243.
95.
McCormickJ.K., TrippT.J, LleraA.S, SundbergE.J, DingesM.M, MariuzzaR.A, and SchlievertP.M.. 2003. Functional analysis of the TCR binding domain of toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 predicts further diversity in MHC class II/superantigen/TCR ternary complexes. J. Immunol. 171:1385–1392.
96.
HuangY., SuiY., ZhangX., SiS., GeW., HuP., LiX., and MaB.. 2007. Response of T cells in vivo induced by repeated superantigen treatments at different time intervals. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. (Shanghai), 39:467–474.
97.
PastacaldiC., LewisP., and HowarthP.. 2011. Staphylococci and staphylococcal superantigens in asthma and rhinitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy, 66:549–555.
98.
HuvenneW., HellingsP.W, and BachertC.. 2013. Role of staphylococcal superantigens in airway disease. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 161:304–314.
99.
FisherE.L., OttoM., and CheungG.Y.C. 2018. Basis of virulence in enterotoxin-mediated staphylococcal food poisoning. Front. Microbiol. 9:436.
100.
NeumannB., EngelhardtB., WagnerH., and HolzmannB.. 1997. Induction of acute inflammatory lung injury by staphylococcal enterotoxin B. J. Immunol. 158:1862–1871.
101.
HerzU., RückertR., WollenhauptK., TschernigT., Neuhaus-SteinmetzU., PabstR., and RenzH.. 1999. Airway exposure to bacterial superantigen (SEB) induces lymphocyte-dependent airway inflammation associated with increased airway responsiveness—a model for non-allergic asthma. Eur. J. Immunol. 29:1021–1031.
102.
DesouzaI.A., HyslopS., Franco-PenteadoC.F, and Ribeiro-DaSilvaG.. 2002. Evidence for the involvement of a macrophage-derived chemotactic mediator in the neutrophil recruitment induced by staphylococcal enterotoxin B in mice. Toxicon, 40:1709–1717.
103.
Boyle-VavraS., and DaumR.S.. 2007. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: the role of Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Lab. Invest. 87:3–9.
104.
MarimónJ.M., VillarM., García-ArenzanaJ.M, de la CabaI., and Pérez-TralleroE.. 2012. Molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus carrying the Panton-Valentine leucocidin genes in northern Spain. J. Infect. 64:47–53.
105.
WatkinsR.R., DavidM.Z, and SalataR.A.. 2012. Current concepts on the virulence mechanisms of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Med. Microbiol. 61,(Pt 9)::1179–1193.
106.
KreienbuehlL., CharbonneyE., and EggimannP.. 2011. Community-acquired necrotizing pneumonia due to methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus secreting Panton-Valentine leukocidin: a review of case reports. Ann. Intensive Care, 1:52.
107.
SchwartzK.L., and NourseC.. 2012. Panton-Valentine leukocidin-associated Staphylococcus aureus necrotizing pneumonia in infants: a report of four cases and review of the literature. Eur. J. Pediatr. 171:711–717.
108.
OttoM.2010. Basis of virulence in community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 64:143–162.
109.
Le ThomasI., Mariani-KurkdjianP., CollignonA., GravetA., ClermontO., BrahimiN., GaudelusJ., AujardY., NavarroJ., BeaufilsF., and BingenE.. 2001. Breast milk transmission of a Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus strain causing infantile pneumonia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39:728–729.
110.
HussainA., RobinsonG., MalkinJ., DuthieM., KearnsA., and PereraN.. 2007. Purpura fulminans in a child secondary to Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing Staphylococcus aureus. J. Med. Microbiol. 56,(Pt 10)::1407–1409.
111.
RougemontA.L., ButeauC., OvetchkineP., BergeronC., FournetJ.C, and SoglioD.B.D. 2009. Fatal cases of Staphylococcus aureus pleural empyema in infants. Pediatr. Dev. Pathol. 12:390–393.
112.
RouzicN., JanvierF., LibertN., JavouheyE., LinaG., NizouJ.Y, PasquierP., StammD., BrinquinL., PelletierC., VandeneschF., FloretD., EtienneJ., and GilletY.. 2010. Prompt and successful toxin-targeting treatment of three patients with necrotizing pneumonia due to Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying the Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48:1952–1955.
113.
GonzalezB.E., HultenK.G, DishopM.K, LamberthL.B, HammermanW.A, MasonE.O, and KaplanS.L.. 2005. Pulmonary manifestations in children with invasive community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41:583–590.
114.
KlevensR.M., MorrisonM.A, NadleJ., PetitS., GershmanK., RayS., HarrisonL.H, LynfieldR., DumyatiG., TownesJ.M, CraigA.S, ZellE.R, FosheimG.E, McDougalL.K, CareyR.B, and FridkinS.K.. 2007. Invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in the United States. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 298:1763–1771.
115.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 2015. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 27th ed. CLSI supplement M100. Wayne, PA.
116.
KatayamaY., ItoT., and HiramatsuK.. 2000. A new class of genetic element, staphylococcus cassette chromosome mec, encodes methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:1549–1555.
117.
ItoT., KatayamaY., AsadaK., MoriN., TsutsumimotoK., TiensasitornC., and HiramatsuK.. 2001. Structural comparison of three types of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec integrated in the chromosome in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:1323–1336.
118.
OkumaK., IwakawaK., TurnidgeJ.D, GrubbW.B, BellJ.M, O'BrienF.G, CoombsG.W, PearmanJ.W, TenoverF.C, KapiM., TiensasitornC., ItoT., and HiramatsuK.. 2002. Dissemination of new methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones in the community. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40:4289–4294.
119.
KatayamaY., TakeuchiF., ItoT., MaX.X, Ui-MizutaniY., KobayashiI., and HiramatsuK.. 2003. Identification in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus hominis of an active primordial mobile genetic element for the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 185:2711–2722.
120.
DavisS.L., RybakM.J, AmjadM., KaatzG.W, and McKinnonP.S.. 2006. Characteristics of patients with healthcare-associated infection due to SCC mec Type IV methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 27:1025–1031.
121.
BartelsM.D., BoyeK., LarsenA.R, SkovR., and WesthH.. 2007. Rapid increase of genetically diverse methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Copenhagen, Denmark. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13:1533–1540.
122.
CalfeeD.2001. The epidemiology, treatment, and prevention of transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Infus. Nurs. 34:359–364.
123.
SalgadoC.D., FarrB.M, and CalfeeD.P.. 2003. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a meta-analysis of prevalence and risk factors. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36:131–139.
124.
MillerL.G., and DiepB.A.. 2008. Colonization, fomites, and virulence: rethinking the pathogenesis of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46:752–760.
125.
StefaniS., and GoglioA.. 2010. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: related infections and antibiotic resistance. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 14 Suppl, 4:S19–S22.
126.
RenC., MorganW., KonstanM., SchechterM., WagenerJ., FisherK., and RegelmannW.. 2007. Investigators and Coordinators of the Epidemiologic Study of Cystic Fibrosis. Presence of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in respiratory cultures from cystic fibrosis patients is associated with lower lung function. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 42:513–518.
127.
Barker, A.F. 2002. Bronchiectasis. N. Engl. J. Med. 346:1383–1393.
128.
TsangK.W., and TipoeG.L.. 2004. Bronchiectasis: not an orphan disease in the East. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 8:691–702.
