Sapphire Energy's Columbus Algal Biomass (CAB) Farm uses open pond cultivation with a proprietary harvesting method to produce algal biomass. Its successful construction and operation has demonstrated the critical integration of traditional agricultural techniques with algae cultivation knowledge for algal biomass production. The aim of this article is to describe Sapphire Energy's two primary research sites in New Mexico—CAB Farm and Las Cruces Test Site (LCTS). It focuses on the key contributions and the lessons learned at CAB Farm and LCTS related to the development of algal biomass production technology. In particular, it focuses on how the knowledge gained can inform the next steps forward for producing algal biomass as an agricultural crop.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BorowitzkaMA. Commercial production of microalgae: Ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. J Biotechnol, 1999; 70(1–3):313–321.
2.
HochmanG, ZilbermanD. Algae farming and its bio-products. In: McMannMC, ed. Plants and Bioenergy, Advances in Plant Biology, 4. New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, New York, NY, 2014:49–64.
3.
MilledgeJJ. Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: A brief review. Rev Environ Sci Tech, 2010; 10(1):31–41.
4.
RajaR, ShanmugamH, GanesanV, CarvalhoIS. Biomass from microalgae: An overview. Oceanography, 2014; 2(1):118.
5.
StephensE, RossIL, MussgnugJH, et al.Future prospects of microalgal biofuel production systems. Trends Plant Sci, 2010; 15(10):554–564.
6.
BelayA. Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors—The Earthrise Farms experience. In: VonshakA, ed. Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira), Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 1997:131–158.
7.
LeeY. Commercial production of microalgae in the Asia-Pacific rim. J App Phycol, 1997; 9(5):403–411.
8.
SingSF, IsdepskyA, BorowitzkaMA, MoheimaniNR. Production of biofuels from microalgae. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change, 2013; 18(1):47–72.
9.
JegatheseSJP, FaridM. Microalgae as a renewable source of energy: A niche opportunity. J Renew Energ, 2014; doi:10.1155/2014/430203.
10.
GuieysseB, BéchetQ, ShiltonA. Variability and uncertainty in water demand and water footprint assessments of fresh algae cultivation based on case studies from five climatic regions. Bioresour Technol, 2013; 128:317–323.
11.
TalentM, BurgessG, Fernández-VelascoJG. Protocol to compensate net evaporation and net precipitation in open-pond microalgal massive cultures and permit maximal steady-state productivities. Biomass Bioenerg, 2014; 64:81–90.
12.
CuddyAS, KeyesE. Groundwater model of the Mimbres Basin, Luna, Grant, Sierra, and Doña Ana Counties, New Mexico. Albuquerque, NM: Office of the State Engineer Hydrology Bureau Technical Report, Albuquerque, NM, 2001:11–1.
13.
SingSF, IsdepskyA, BorowitzkaMA, LewisDM. Pilot-scale continuous recycling of growth medium for the mass culture of a halotolerant Tetraselmis sp. in raceway ponds under increasing salinity: A novel protocol for commercial microalgal biomass production. Bioresour Technolog, 2014; 161:47–54.
14.
CrossleyIA, ValadeMT. A review of the technological developments of dissolved air flotation. J Water Supply Res Technol AQUA, 2006; 55(7–8):479–491.
15.
VandammeD, FoubertI, MuylaertK. Flocculation as a low-cost method for harvesting microalgae for bulk biomass production. Trends Biotechnol, 2013; 31(4):233–239.
16.
JonesJB. Agronomic handbook: Management of Crops, Soils, and Their Fertility. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press LLC, 2003.
17.
TrentacosteEM, MartinezAM, ZenkT. The place of algae in agriculture: Policies for algal biomass production. Photosynth Res, 2014; 123(3):305–315.
SchenkPM, Thomas-HallSR, StephensE, et al.Second generation biofuels: High-efficiency microalgae for biodiesel production. Bioenerg Res, 2008; 1(1):20–43.
20.
ShurinJB, AbbottRL, DealMS, et al.Industrial-strength ecology: Trade-offs and opportunities in algal biofuel production. Ecol Lett, 2013; 16(11):1393–1404.
21.
SutherlandDL, TurnbullMH, CraggsRJ. Increased pond depth improves algal productivity and nutrient removal in wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds. Water Res, 2014; 53:271–281.
22.
GrobbelaarJ. Microalgae mass culture: The constraints of scaling up. J Appl Phycol, 2012; 24(3) 315–318.
23.
RichmondA, LichtenbergE, StahlB, VonshakA. Quantitative assessment of the major limitations on productivity of Spirulina platensis in open raceways. J Appl Phycol, 1990; 2(3):195–206.
24.
OlivaresJ. 2014. National Alliance for Advanced Biofuels and Bio-products Synopsis (NAABB) Final Report. Available at: http://energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/downloads/national-alliance-advanced-biofuels-and-bioproducts-synopsis-naabb-final (Last accessed January2015).
25.
SheehanJ, DunahayT, BenemannJ, RoesslerP. A Look Back at the US Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, 1998.
26.
BorowitzkaMA. Algal biotechnology products and processes—Matching science and economics. J Appl Phycol, 1992; 4(3):267–279.
27.
RawatI, KumarRR, MutandaT, BuxT. Biodiesel from microalgae: A critical evaluation from laboratory to large scale production. Appl Energ, 2013; 105:444–467.
28.
CarneyLT, LaneTW. Parasites in algae mass culture. Front Microbiol, 2014; 5:278.
29.
DayJG, SlocombeSP, StanleyMS. Overcoming biological constraints to enable the exploitation of microalgae for biofuels. Bioresour Technol, 2012; 109:245–251
30.
SmithVH, CrewsT. Applying ecological principles of crop cultivation in large-scale algal biomass production. Algal Res, 2014; 4:23–34.
31.
NalleyJO, StockenreiterM, LitchmanE. Community ecology of algal biofuels: Complementarity and trait-based approaches. Ind Biotechnol, 2014; 10(3):191–201.
32.
KazamiaE, RiseleyAS, HowCJ, et al.An engineered community approach for industrial cultivation of microalgae. Ind Biotechnol, 2014; 10(3):184–190.
33.
RichardsonJW, JohnsonMD, ZhangX, et al.A financial assessment of two alternative cultivation systems and their contributions to algae biofuel economic viability. Algal Res, 2014; 4:96–104.
34.
GreenwellHC, LaurensLML, ShieldsRJ, et al.Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: A review of the technological challenges. J R Soc Interface, 2010; 7(46):703–726.
35.
McBrideRC, LopezS, MeenachC, et al.Contamination management in low cost open algae ponds for biofuels production. Ind Biotechnol, 2014; 10(3):221–227.
36.
LurlingM. Phenotypic plasticity in green algae Desmodesmus and Scenedesmus with special reference to induction of defensive morphology. Ann Limnol Int J Lim, 2003; 39(2):85–101.
37.
DeguineJ, FerronP, RussellD. Crop Protection: From Agrochemistry to Agroecology. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers, 2008.
38.
LetcherPM, LopezS, SchmiederR, et al.Characterization of Amoeboadphelidium protococcarum, an algal parasite new to the Cryptomycota isolated from an outdoor algal pond used for the production of biofuel. PLoS One, 8(2):e56232.
39.
McBrideRC, MerrickDS. Innovations in open pond algae agriculture for biofuel production. Ind Biotechnol, 2014; 10(3):162–163.
40.
CollinsAM, JonesHDT, McBrideRC, et al.Host cell pigmentation in Scenedesmus dimorphus as a beacon for nascent parasite infection. Biotechnol Bioeng, 2014; 111(9):1748–1757.
41.
VonshakA, BoussibaS, AbeliovichA, RichmondA. Production of Spirulina biomass: Maintenance of monoalgal culture outdoors. Biotechnol Bioeng, 1983; 25(2):341–349.
42.
MitchellSA, RichmondA. The use of rotifers for the maintenance of monoalgal mass cultures of Spirulina. Biotechnol Bioeng, 1987; 30(2):164–168.
43.
OerkeEC. Crop losses to pests. J Agric Sci, 2006; 44(1):21–43.
44.
SiddiquiS, FriedmanD, AlperJ. Opportunities and obstacles in large-scale biomass utilization: The role of chemical sciences and engineering communities (workshop summary). Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2012.
45.
StephensE, RossIL, HankamerB. Expanding the microalgal industry—Continuing controversy or compelling case?. Curr Opin Chem Biol, 2013; 17(3):444–452.
46.
BurlewJS ed. Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 600, 1953:3–23.
