Wild boar populations around the world have increased dramatically over past decades. Climate change, generating milder winters with less snow, may affect their spread into northern regions. Wild boars can serve as reservoirs for a number of bacteria, viruses, and parasites, which are transmissible to humans and domestic animals through direct interaction with wild boars, through contaminated food or indirectly through contaminated environment. Disease transmission between wild boars, domestic animals, and humans is an increasing threat to human and animal health, especially in areas with high wild boar densities. This article reviews important foodborne zoonoses, including bacterial diseases (brucellosis, salmonellosis, tuberculosis, and yersiniosis), parasitic diseases (toxoplasmosis and trichinellosis), and the viral hepatitis E. The focus is on the prevalence of these diseases and the causative microbes in wild boars. The role of wild boars in transmitting these pathogens to humans and livestock is also briefly discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AmatoB, Di Marco Lo PrestiV, GeraceE, CapucchioMT, VitaleM, ZanghìP, PacciariniML, MarianelliC, BoniottiMB. Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strains isolated from livestock and wild animals in Italy suggests the need for a different eradication strategy for bovine tuberculosis. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2018; 65:e416–e424.
2.
Anheyer-BehmenburgHE, SzaboK, SchotteU, BinderA, KleinG, JohneR. Hepatitis E virus in wild boars and spillover infection in red and roe deer, Germany, 2013–2015. Emerg Infect Dis, 2017; 23:130–133.
3.
ApreaG, AmorosoMG, Di BartoloI, D'AlessioN, Di SabatinoD, BoniA, CioffiB, D'AngelantonioD, ScattoliniS, et al.Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis E virus strains circulating in wild boars in south-central Italy. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2018; 65:e25–e31.
4.
Arrausi-SubizaM, GerrikagoitiaX, AlvarezV, IbabeJC, BarralM. Prevalence of Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in wild boars in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Acta Vet Scand, 2016; 58:4.
5.
BaiM, ZouY, ElsheikhaHM, MaJ, ZhengW, ZhaoQ, ZhangX, ZhuX. Toxoplasma gondii infection in farmed wild boars (Sus scrofa) in three cities of Northeast China. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2017; 14:379–385.
6.
BallariSA, Barrios-GarcíaMN. A review of wild boar Sus scrofa diet and factors affecting food selection in native and introduced ranges. Mammal Rev, 2014; 44:124–134.
7.
Bancerz-KisielA, Platt-SamorajA, Szczerba-TurekA, SyczyloK, SzwedaW. The first pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica bioserotype 4/O:3 strain isolated from a hunted wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Poland. Epidemiol Infect, 2015; 143:2758–2765.
8.
Bancerz-KisielA, SochaP, SzwedaW. Detection and characterisation of Yersinia enterocolitica strains in cold-stored carcasses of large game animals in Poland. Vet J, 2016; 208:102–103.
9.
BarasonaJA, AcevedoP, Diez-DelgadoI, QueirosJ, Carrasco-GarciaR, GortazarC, VicenteJ. Tuberculosis-associated death among adult wild boars, Spain, 2009–2014. Emerg Infect Dis, 2016; 22:2178–2180.
10.
BarasonaJA, TorresMJ, AznarJ, GortázarC, VicenteJ. DNA detection reveals Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex shedding routes in its wildlife reservoir the Eurasian wild boar. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2017; 64:906–915.
11.
BarochJA, GagnoCA, LacoutureS, GottschalkM. Exposure of feral swine (Sus scrofa) in the United States to selected pathogens. Can J Vet Res, 2015; 79:74–78.
12.
BarthS, GeueL, HinschingA, JenckelM, SchlosserJ, EidenM, PietschmannJ, MengeC, BeerM, et al.Experimental evaluation of faecal Escherichia coli and Hepatitis E virus as biological indicators of contacts between domestic pigs and Eurasian wild boar. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2017; 64:487–494.
13.
BattistiE, ZanetS, TrisciuoglioA, BrunoS, FerroglioE. Circulating genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii in Northwestern Italy. Vet Parasitol, 2018; 253:43–47.
14.
Baumann-PopczykA, PopczykB, GolabE, Rozej-BielickaW, Sadkowska-TodysM. A cross-sectional study among Polish hunters: Seroprevalence of hepatitis E and the analysis of factors contributing to HEV infections. Med Microbiol Immunol, 2017; 206:367–378.
15.
BeerliO, BlatterS, BoadellaM, SchöningJ, SchmittS, Ryser-DegiorgisM. Towards harmonised procedures in wildlife epidemiological investigations: A serosurvey of infection with Mycobacterium bovis and closely related agents in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Switzerland. Vet J, 2015; 203:131–133.
16.
Bilska-ZajacE, RózyckiM, ChmurzynskaE, AntolakE, PróchniakM, Gradziel-KrukowskaK, KaramonJ, SrokaJ, ZdybelJ, CencekT. First case of Trichinella nativa infection in wild boar in Central Europe—Molecular characterization of the parasite. Parasitol Res, 2017; 116:1705–1711.
17.
Bilska-ZajacE, RózyckiM, ChmurzynskaE, KaramonJ, SrokaJ, AntolakE, PróchniakM, CencekT. First record of wild boar infected with Trichinella pseudospiralis in Poland. J Vet Res, 2016; 60:147–152.
18.
BoadellaM.Hepatitis E in wild ungulates: A review. Small Ruminant Res, 2015; 128:64–71.
19.
BoniottiMB, GaffuriA, GelmettiD, TagliabueS, ChiariM, MangeliA, SpisaniM, NassuatoC, GibelliL, et al.Detection and molecular characterization of Mycobacterium microti isolates in wild boar from northern Italy. J Clin Microbiol, 2014; 52:2834–2843.
20.
BrownVR, BowenRA, Bosco-LauthAM. Zoonotic pathogens from feral swine that pose a significant threat to public health. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2018; 65:649–659.
21.
BurriC, VialF, Ryser-DegiorgisM, SchwermerH, DarlingK, ReistM, WuN, BeerliO, SchöningJ, et al.Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus in domestic pigs and wild boars in Switzerland. Zoonoses Public Health, 2014; 61:537–544.
22.
Calero-BernalR, Pérez-MartínJE, ReinaD, SerranoFJ, FronteraE, FuentesI, DubeyJP. Detection of zoonotic protozoa Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis suihominis in wild boars from Spain. Zoonoses Public Health, 2016; 63:346–350.
23.
Calero-BernalR, SaugarJM, FronteraE, Pérez-MartínJE, HabelaMA, SerranoFJ, ReinaD, FuentesI. Prevalence and genotype identification of Toxoplasma gondii in wild animals from southwestern Spain. J Wildl Dis, 2015; 51:233–238.
24.
Cano-ManuelFJ, López-OlveraJ, FandosP, SoriguerRC, PérezJM, GranadosJE. Long-term monitoring of 10 selected pathogens in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Sierra Nevada National Park, southern Spain. Vet Microbiol, 2014; 174:148–154.
25.
Cano-TerrizaD, RisaldeMA, Jiménez-RuizS, VicenteJ, IslaJ, PaniaguaJ, MorenoI, GortázarC, Infantes-LorenzoJA, García-BocanegraI. Management of hunting waste as control measure for tuberculosis in wild ungulates in south-central Spain. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2018; 65:1190–1196.
26.
CantlayJC, IngramDJ, MeredithAL. A review of zoonotic infection risks associated with the wild meat trade in Malaysia. EcoHealth, 2017; 14:361–388.
27.
Carrasco-GarciaR, BarrosoP, Perez-OlivaresJ, MontoroV, VicenteJ. Consumption of big game remains by scavengers: A potential risk as regards disease transmission in central Spain. Front Vet Sci, 2018; 5:4.
28.
CarusoC, ModestoP, BertoliniS, PelettoS, AcutisPL, DondoA, RobettoS, MignoneW, OrusaR, et al.Serological and virological survey of hepatitis E virus in wild boar populations in northwestern Italy: Detection of HEV subtypes 3e and 3f. Arch Virol, 2015; 160:153–160.
29.
CharrierF, RossiS, JoriF, MaestriniO, RichommeC, CasabiancaF, DucrotC, JouveJ, PavioN, Le PotierM. Aujeszky's disease and hepatitis E viruses transmission between domestic pigs and wild boars in Corsica: Evaluating the importance of wild/domestic interactions and the efficacy of management measures. Front Vet Sci, 2018; 5:1.
30.
Che' AmatA, González-BarrioD, OrtizJA, Díez-DelgadoI, BoadellaM, BarasonaJA, BezosJ, RomeroB, Armenteros JA et al. Testing Eurasian wild boar piglets for serum antibodies against Mycobacterium bovis. Prev Vet Med, 2015; 121:93–98.
31.
Clemente-CasaresP, Ramos-RomeroC, Ramirez-GonzalezE, MasA. Hepatitis E virus in industrialized countries: The silent threat. Biomed Res Int, 2016; 1–17.
32.
ClevelandCA, DeNicolaA, DubeyJP, HillDE, BerghausRD, YabsleyMJ. Survey for selected pathogens in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) from Guam, Marianna Islands, USA. Vet Microbiol, 2017; 205:22–25.
33.
CoelhoC, Vieira-PintoM, FariaAS, Vale-GonçalvesH, VelosoO, Paiva-CardosoMd, MesquitaJR, LopesAP. Serological evidence of Toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boar from Portugal. Vet Parasitol, 2014; 202:310–312.
34.
CummingsKJ, Rodriguez-RiveraLD, GrigarMK, RankinSC, MesenbrinkBT, LelandBR, BodenchukMJ. Prevalence and characterization of Salmonella isolated from feral pigs throughout Texas. Zoonoses Public Health, 2016; 63:436–441.
35.
CuttellL, Gómez-MoralesMA, CooksonB, AdamsPJ, ReidSA, VanderlindePB, JacksonLA, GrayC, TraubRJ. Evaluation of ELISA coupled with Western blot as a surveillance tool for Trichinella infection in wild boar (Sus scrofa). Vet Parasitol, 2014; 199:179–190.
36.
Di ProfioF, MelegariI, SarcheseV, RobettoS, MarruchellaG, BonaMC, OrusaR, MartellaV, MarsilioF, Di MartinoB. Detection and genetic characterization of hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 subtype c in wild boars in Italy. Arch Virol, 2016; 161:2829–2834.
37.
DiasD, TorresRT, KronvallG, FonsecaC, MendoS, CaetanoT. Assessment of antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolates and screening of Salmonella spp. in wild ungulates from Portugal. Res Microbiol, 2015; 166:584–593.
38.
Díez-DelgadoI, SevillaIA, RomeroB, TannerE, BarasonaJA, WhiteAR, LurzPWW, BootsM, de la FuenteJ, et al.Impact of piglet oral vaccination against tuberculosis in endemic free-ranging wild boar populations. Prev Vet Med, 2018; 155:11–20.
39.
Dorn-InS, SchwaigerK, TwaruzekM, GrajewskiJ, GottschalkC, GareisM. Hepatitis e virus in wild boar in northwest Poland: Sensitivity of methods of detection. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2017; 14:103–108.
40.
EFSA. Scientific opinion on the public health hazards to be covered by inspection of meat (swine). EFSA J, 2011; 10:2351.
41.
EFSA. Technical specification on harmonised epidemiological indicators for biological hazards to be covered by meat inspection of farmed game. EFSA J, 2013; 11:3267.
42.
EFSA, ECDC. The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents and food-borne outbreaks in 2016. EFSA J, 2017; 15:5077.
43.
FaberM, AskarM, StarkK. Case-control study on risk factors for acute hepatitis E in Germany, 2012 to 2014. Eurosurveillance, 2018; 23:17.
44.
FaberM, SchinkS, Mayer-SchollA, ZieschC, SchönfelderR, Wichmann-SchauerH, StarkK, NöcklerK. Outbreak of trichinellosis due to wild boar meat and evaluation of the effectiveness of post exposure prophylaxis, Germany, 2013. Clin Infect Dis, 2015; 60:e98–e104.
45.
FelinE, JukolaE, RauloS, Fredriksson-AhomaaM. Meat juice serology and improved food chain Information as control tools for pork-related public health hazards. Zoonoses Public Health, 2015; 62:456–464.
46.
FerroglioE, BosioF, TrisciuoglioA, ZanetS. Toxoplasma gondii in sympatric wild herbivores and carnivores: Epidemiology of infection in the Western Alps. Parasit Vectors, 2014; 7:196.
47.
FichiG, StefanelliS, PaganiA, LuchiS, De GennaroM, Gómez-MoralesMA, SelmiM, RovaiD, MariM, et al.Trichinellosis outbreak caused by meat from a wild boar hunted in an Italian region considered to be at negligible Risk for Trichinella. Zoonoses Public Health, 2015; 62:285–291.
48.
FlisM, GrelaER, GugalaD. Epizootic and epidemiological situation of Trichinella sp. infection in Poland in 2006–2015 in view of wild boar population dynamics. J Vet Res, 2017; 61:181–187.
49.
Franco-ParedesC, ChastainD, TaylorP, StockingS, SellersB. Boar hunting and brucellosis caused by Brucella suis. Travel Med Infect Dis, 2017; 16:18–22.
50.
Fredriksson-AhomaaM. (2015). Enteropathogenic Yersinia spp. In: Zoonoses—Infections Affecting Humans and Animals, 1st ed. Sing A, ed. London: Springer, pp. 213–234.
51.
GagneuxS. Ecology and evolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nat Rev Microbiol, 2018; 16:202–213.
52.
GazzonisAL, VillaL, RiehnK, HamedyA, MinazziS, OlivieriE, ZanzaniSA, ManfrediMT. Occurrence of selected zoonotic food-borne parasites and first molecular identification of Alaria alata in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Italy. Parasitol Res, 2018; 117:2207–2215.
53.
GerholdRW, SarafP, ChapmanA, ZouX, HicklingG, StiverWH, HoustonA, SouzaM, SuC. Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence and genotype diversity in select wildlife species from the southeastern United States. Parasit Vectors, 2017; 10:508.
54.
GlawischnigW, HoferE, PoschR, SailerA, Revilla-FernándezS, KornschoberC, LassnigH, SchöpfK, SchmollF. Occurrence of Salmonella enterica, Brucella suis Biovar 2 and Corynebacterium ulcerans in free-living wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Austria. Wien Tierarztl Monatsschr, 2018; 105:33–40.
55.
GodfroidJ, DeBolleX, RoopRM, O'CallaghanD, TsolisRM, BaldwinC, SantosRL, McGivenJ, OlsenS, et al.The quest for a true One Health perspective of brucellosis. Rev Sci Tech, 2014; 33:521–538.
56.
Gómez-MoralesMA, LudovisiA, AmatiM, BandinoE, CapelliG, CorriasF, GelminiL, NardiA, SacchiC, et al.Indirect versus direct detection methods of Trichinella spp. infection in wild boar (Sus scrofa). Parasit Vectors, 2014; 7:171.
57.
GortázarC, Fernández-CalleLM, Collazos-MartínezJA, Mínguez-GonzálezO, AcevedoP. Animal tuberculosis maintenance at low abundance of suitable wildlife reservoir hosts: A case study in northern Spain. Prev Vet Med, 2017; 146:150–157.
58.
Grantina-IevinaL, AvsejenkoJ, CvetkovaS, KrastinaD, StreikisaM, SteingoldeZ, VevereI, RodzeI. Seroprevalence of Brucella suis in eastern Latvian wild boars (Sus scrofa). Acta Vet Scand, 2018; 60:19.
HaraY, TeradaY, YonemitsuK, ShimodaH, NoguchiK, SuzukiK, MaedaK. High prevalence of hepatitis E virus in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan. J Wildl Dis, 2014; 50:378–383.
61.
HeatonD, HuangS, ShiauR, CasillasS, StrailyA, KongLK, NgV, PetruV. Trichinellosis outbreak linked to consumption of privately raised raw boar meat—California, 2017. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2018; 67:247–249.
62.
HillDE, DubeyJP, BarochJA, SwaffordSR, FournetVF, Hawkins-CooperD, PyburnDG, SchmitBS, GambleHR, et al.Surveillance of feral swine for Trichinella spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in the USA and host-related factors associated with infection. Vet Parasitol, 2014; 205:653–665.
63.
HolzbauerSM, AggerWA, HallRL, JohnsonGM, SchmittD, GarveyA, BishopHS, RiveraH, De AlmeidaME, et al.Outbreak of Trichinella spiralis infections associated with a wild boar hunted at a game farm in Iowa. Clin Infect Dis, 2014; 59:1750–1756.
64.
IvanovaA, TefanovaV, ReshetnjakI, KuznetsovaT, GellerJ, Lundkvist, Å, JansonM, NeareK, VelströmK, et al.Hepatitis E virus in domestic pigs, wild boars, pig farm workers, and hunters in Estonia. Food Environ Virol, 2015; 7:403–412.
65.
JangY, RyooS, LeeH, KimN, LeeH, ParkS, SongW, KimJ, LeeHS, KimJM. Isolation of Mycobacterium bovis from free-ranging wildlife in South Korea. J Wildl Dis, 2017; 53:181–185.
66.
JeongW, YoonH, KimYK, MoonO, KimD, AnD. Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in South Korean wild boar (Sus scrofa coreanus). J Wildl Dis, 2014; 50:902–905.
67.
JokelainenP, VelströmK, LassenB. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in free-ranging wild boars hunted for human consumption in Estonia. Acta Vet Scand, 2015; 57:42.
68.
JoriF, LavalM, MaestriniO, CasabiancaF, CharrierF, PavioN. Assessment of domestic pigs, wild boars and feral hybrid pigs as reservoirs of hepatitis E virus in Corsica, France. Viruses, 2016; 8:236.
69.
JoriF, RelunA, TrabuccoB, CharrierF, MaestriniO, ChavernacD, CornelisD, CasabiancaF, EtterEMC. Questionnaire-based assessment of wild boar/domestic pig interactions and implications for disease risk management in Corsica. Front Vet Sci, 2017; 4:198.
70.
KärssinA, VelströmK, Gómez-MoralesMA, SaarT, JokelainenP, LassenB. Cross-sectional study of anti-Trichinella antibody prevalence in domestic pigs and hunted wild boars in Estonia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 2016; 16:604–610.
71.
KhurooMS, KhurooMS, KhurooNS. Hepatitis E: Discovery, global impact, control and cure. World J Gastroenterol, 2016; 22:7030–7045.
72.
KimHJ, JeongWS, KimEM, YeoSG, AnDJ, YoonH, KimEJ, ParkC. Prevalence of Trichinella spp. antibodies in wild boars (Sus scrofa) and domestic pigs in Korea. Vet Med, 2015; 60:181–185.
73.
KirjušinaM, DeksneG, MarucciG, BakasejevsE, JahundovicaI, DaukšteA, ZdankovskaA, BerzinaZ, EsiteZ, et al.A 38-year study on Trichinella spp. in wild boar (Sus scrofa) of Latvia shows a stable incidence with an increased parasite biomass in the last decade. Parasit Vectors, 2015; 8:137.
74.
KubankovaM, KralikP, LamkaJ, ZakovcikV, DolanskýM, VasickovaP. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus in populations of wild animals in comparison with animals bred in game enclosures. Food Environ Virol, 2015; 7:159–163.
75.
KukielkaD, Rodriguez-PrietoV, VicenteJ, Sánchez-VizcaínoJM. Constant hepatitis E virus (HEV) circulation in wild boar and red deer in Spain: An increasing concern source of HEV zoonotic transmission. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2016; 63:e360–e368.
76.
LamaJK, BachoonDS. Detection of Brucella suis, Campylobacter jejuni, and Escherichia coli strains in feral pig (Sus scrofa) communities of Georgia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 2018; 18:350–355.
77.
LarskaM, KrzysiakMK, JablonskiA, KesikJ, BednarskiM, RolaJ. Hepatitis E virus antibody prevalence in wildlife in Poland. Zoonoses Public Health, 2015; 62:105–110.
78.
LeeH, ChungO, KimJ, LeeS, YooY, SeoM. Seroprevalence of Trichinella sp. in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from Yanggu-gun, Gangwon-do, Korea. Korean J Parasitol, 2015; 53:233–236.
79.
LhommeS, TopS, BertagnoliS, DuboisM, GuerinJ, IzopetJ. Wildlife reservoir for hepatitis E virus, Southwestern France. Emerg Infect Dis, 2015; 21:1224–1226.
80.
LorencovaA, BabakV, LamkaJ. Serological prevalence of enteropathogenic Yersinia spp. in pigs and wild boars from different production systems in the Moravian region, Czech Republic. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2016; 13:275–279.
81.
LuoH, LiK, ShahzadM, ZangH, LanY, XiongX, Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars, wild rabbits, and wilk chickens in Hubei province, China. Korean J Parasitol, 2017; 1:85–88.
82.
MacielALG, LoikoMR, BuenoTS, MoreiraJG, CoppolaM, Dalla CostaER, SchmidKB, RodriguesRO, CibulskiSP, et al.Tuberculosis in Southern Brazilian wild boars (Sus scrofa): First epidemiological findings. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2018; 65:518–526.
83.
MadeiraS, ManteigasA, RibeiroR, OtteJ, FonsecaAP, CaetanoP, AbernethyD, BoinasF. Factors that influecnce Mycobacterium bovis infection in red deer and wild boar in an epidemiological risk area for tuberculosis of game species in Portugal. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2017; 64:793–804.
84.
MaillesA, OgielskaM, KemicheF, Garin-BastujiB, BrieuN, BurnususZ, CreuwelsA, DanjeanMP, GuietP, et al.Brucella suis biovar 2 infection in humans in France: Emerging infection or better recognition?. Epidemiol Infect, 2017; 145:2711–2716.
85.
MalmstenA, MagnussonU, Ruiz-FonsF, González-BarrioD, DalinA. A serologic survey of pathogens in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Sweden. J Wildl Dis, 2018; 54:229–237.
86.
MartinelliN, PavoniE, FilogariD, FerrariN, ChiariM, CanelliE, LombardiG. Hepatitis E virus in wild boar in the central Northern part of Italy. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2015; 62:217–222.
87.
MasseiG, KindbergJ, LicoppeA, GacicD, ŠpremN, KamlerJ, BaubetE, HohmannU, MonacoA, et al.Wild boar populations up, numbers of hunters down? A review of trends and implications for Europe. Pest Manage Sci, 2015; 71:492–500.
88.
MatosAC, FigueiraL, MartinsMH, PintoML, MatosM, CoelhoAC. New insights into Mycobacterium bovis prevalence in wild mammals in Portugal. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2016; 63:e313–e322.
89.
MazzeiM, NardiniR, VerinR, ForzanM, PoliA, TolariF. Serologic and molecular survey for hepatitis E virus in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Central Italy. New Microbes New Infect, 2015; 7:41–47.
90.
McGregorGF, GottschalkM, GodsonDL, WilkinsW, BollingerTK. Disease risks associated with free-ranging wild boar in Saskatchewan. Can Vet J, 2015; 56:839–844.
91.
MentaberreG, RomeroB, De JuanL, Navarro-GonzálezN, VelardeR, MateosA, MarcoI, Olivé-BoixX, DomínguezL, et al.Long-term assessment of wild boar harvesting and cattle removal for bovine tuberculosis control in free ranging populations. PLoS One, 2014; 9:e88824.
92.
MesquitaJR, OliveiraRM, CoelhoC, Vieira-PintoM, NascimentoMS. Hepatitis E virus in sylvatic and captive wild boar from Portugal. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2016; 63:574–578.
93.
MessiaenP, ForierA, VanderschuerenS, TheunissenC, NijsJ, van EsbroeckM, BottieauE, de SchrijverK, GyssensIC, et al.Outbreak of trichinellosis related to eating imported wild boar meat, Belgium, 2014. Euro Surveill, 2016; 21:2–9.
94.
MillerRS, SweeneySJ, SlootmakerC, GrearDA, Di SalvoPA, KiserD, ShwiffSA. Cross-species transmission potential between wild pigs, livestock, poultry, wildlife, and humans: Implications for disease risk management in North America. Sci Rep, 2017; 7:7821.
95.
MircetaJ, PetrovicJ, MalesevicM, BlagojevicB, AnticD. Assessment of microbial carcass contamination of hunted wild boars. 2017; 63:37.
96.
MontagnaroS, De MartinisC, SassoS, CiarciaR, DamianoS, AulettaL, IovaneV, ZottolaT, PagniniU. Viral and antibody prevalence of hepatitis E in European wild boars (Sus scrofa) and hunters at zoonotic risk in the Latium region. J Comp Pathol, 2015; 153:1–8.
97.
MotoyaT, NagataN, KomoriH, DoiI, KurosawaM, KetaT, SasakiN, IshiiK. The high prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection in wild boars in Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. J Vet Med Sci, 2016; 77:1705–1709.
98.
MurrellKD. The dynamics of Trichinella spiralis epidemiology: Out to pasture?. Vet Parasitol, 2016; 231:92–96.
99.
NicorescuIMD, IonitaM, CiupescuL, BuzatuCV, TanasuicaR, MitreaIL. New insights into the molecular epidemiology of Trichinella infection in domestic pigs, wild boars, and bears in Romania. Vet Parasitol, 2015; 212:257–261.
100.
NugentG, BuddleBM, KnowlesG. Epidemiology and control of Mycobacterium bovis infection in brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), the primary wildlife host of bovine tuberculosis in New Zealand. New Zealand Vet J, 2015; 63:28–41.
101.
OjaR, ZilmerK, ValdmannH. Spatiotemporal effects of supplementary feeding of wild boar (Sus scrofa) on artificial ground nest depredation. PLoS One, 2015; 10:1–11.
102.
OrgeurM, BroschR. Evolution of virulence in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Curr Opin Microbiol, 2018; 41:68–75.
103.
PapiniRA, VannucciS, RocchigianiG, NardoniS, ManciantiF. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and potentially zoonotic helminths in wild boars (Sus scrofa) hunted in central Italy. Mac Vet Rev, 2018; 41:83–93.
104.
PavioN, DoceulV, BagdassarianE, JohneR. Recent knowledge on hepatitis E virus in Suidae reservoirs and transmission routes to human. Vet Res, 2017; 48:78.
105.
PayneA, PhiliponS, HarsJ, DufourB, Gilot-FromontE. Wildlife interactions on baited places and waterholes in a French area infected by bovine tuberculosis. Front Vet Sci, 2017; 3:122.
106.
PearsonHE, ToribioJLML, Hernandez-JoverM, MarshallD, LapidgeSJ. Pathogen presence in feral pigs and their movement around two commercial piggeries in Queensland, Australia. Vet Rec, 2014; 174:325.
107.
PearsonHE, ToribioJALML, LapidgeSJ, Hernández-JoverM. Evaluating the risk of pathogen transmission from wild animals to domestic pigs in Australia. Prev Vet Med, 2016; 123:39–51.
108.
PedersenK, BauerNE, OlsenS, Arenas-GamboaAM, HenryAC, SibleyTD, GidlewskiT. Identification of Brucella spp. in feral swine (Sus scrofa) at abattoirs in Texas, USA. Zoonoses Public Health, 2017a;64:647–654.
109.
PedersenK, BauerNE, RodgersS, BazanLR, MesenbrinkBT, GidlewskiT. Antibodies to various zoonotic pathogens detected in feral swine (Sus scrofa) at abattoirs in Texas, USA. J Food Prot, 2017b;80:1239–1242.
110.
PedersenK, MillerRS, AndersonTD, PabiloniaKL, LewisJR, MihalcoRL, GortazarC, GidlewskiT. Limited antibody evidence of exposure to Mycobacterium bovis in feral swine (Sus scrofa) in the USA. J Wildl Dis, 2017c;53:30–36.
111.
PedersenK, QuanceCR, Robbe-AustermanS, PiaggioAJ, BevinsSN, GoldsteinSM, GastonWD, DeLibertoTJ. Identification of Brucella suis from feral swine in selected states in the USA. J Wildl Dis, 2014; 50:171–179.
112.
Pérez de ValB, NappS, VelardeR, LavínS, CerveraZ, SinghM, AllepuzA, MentaberreG. Serological follow-up of tuberculosis in a wild boar population in contact with infected cattle. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2017; 64:275–283.
113.
PiloC, AddisG, DeiddaM, TeddeMT, LiciardiM. A serosurvey for brucellosis in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Sardinia, Italy. J Wildl Dis, 2015; 51:885–888.
114.
PiresSM, VieiraAR, HaldT, ColeD. Source attribution of human salmonellosis: An overview of methods and estimates. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2014; 11:667–676.
115.
PozioE. Trichinella spp. imported with live animals and meat. Vet Parasitol, 2015; 213:46–55.
116.
PrpicJ, CerniS, ŠkoricD, KerosT, BrnicD, Cvetnic Ž, JemeršicL. Distribution and molecular characterization of hepatitis E virus in domestic animals and wildlife in Croatia. Food Environ Virol, 2015; 7:195–205.
117.
RackaK, BártováE, BudíkováM, VodrážkaP. Survey of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in meat juice of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in several districts of the Czech Republic. Ann Agric Environ Med, 2015; 22:231–235.
118.
ReinhardtM, HammerlJA, HertwigS. Complete genome sequences of 10 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis isolates recovered from wild boars in Germany. Genome Announc, 2018; 6:e00266-18.
119.
ReiterováK, ŠpilovskáS, BlanarováL, DerdákováM, CobádiováA, HisiraV. Wild boar (Sus scrofa)—Reservoir host of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Slovakia. Acta Parasitol, 2016; 61:255–260.
120.
RenouC, Roque-AfonsoAM, PavioN. Foodborne transmission of hepatitis E virus from raw pork liver sausage, France. Emerg Infect Dis, 2014; 20:1945–1947.
121.
RidouttC, LeeA, MoloneyB, MasseyP, CharmanN, JordanD. Detection of brucellosis and leptospirosis in feral pigs in New South Wales. Aust Vet J, 2014; 92:343–347.
122.
RisaldeMA, Rivero-JuárezA, Romero-PalomoF, FríasM, López-LópezP, Cano-TerrizaD, García-BocanegraI, Jiménez-RuízS, Camacho Á, et al. Persistence of hepatitis E virus in the liver of non-viremic naturally infected wild boar. PLoS One, 2017; 12:1–11.
123.
RiscoD, GarcíaA, SerranoE, Fernandez-LlarioP, BenítezJM, MartínezR, GarcíaWL, de MendozaJH. High-density dependence but low impact on selected reproduction parameters of Brucella suis biovar 2 in wild boar hunting estates from south-western Spain. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2014; 61:555–562.
124.
Rivero-JuarezA, FriasM, Martinez-PeinadoA, RisaldeMA, Rodriguez-CanoD, CamachoA, García-BocanegraI, Cuenca-LopezF, Gomez-VillamandosJC, RiveroA. Familial hepatitis E outbreak linked to wild boar meat consumption. Zoonoses Public Health, 2017; 64:561–565.
125.
Rivero-JuarezA, RisaldeMA, FriasM, García-BocanegraI, Lopez-LopezP, Cano-TerrizaD, CamachoA, Jimenez-RuizS, Gomez-VillamandosJC, RiveroA. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection in wild boars from Spain: A possible seasonal pattern?. BMC Vet Res, 2018; 14:54.
126.
RivièreJ, Le StratY, HendrikxP, DufourB. Cost-effectiveness evaluation of bovine tuberculosis surveillance in wildlife in France (Sylvatub system) using scenario trees. PLoS One, 2017; 12:1–17.
127.
RoqueploC, BlagaR, MariéJL, ValléeI, DavoustB. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in hunted wild boars (Sus scrofa) from southeastern France. Folia Parasitol (Praha), 2017; 64:003.
128.
RostamiA, GambleHR, Dupouy-CametJ, KhazanH, BruschiF. Meat sources of infection for outbreaks of human trichinellosis. Food Microbiol, 2017a;64:65–71.
129.
RostamiA, KhazanH, KiaEB, BandehpourM, MowlaviG, KazemiB, TaghipourN. Molecular identification of Trichinella spp. in wild boar, and serological survey of high-risk populations in Iran. Food Control, 2018; 90:40–47.
130.
RostamiA, RiahiSM, FakhriY, SaberV, HanifehpourH, ValizadehS, GholizadehM, PouyaRH, GambleHR. The global seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among wild boars: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet Parasitol, 2017b;244:12–20.
131.
RothA, LinJ, MagniusL, KarlssonM, BelakS, WidenF, NorderH. Markers for ongoing or previous hepatitis E virus infection are as common in wild ungulates as in humans in Sweden. Viruses, 2016; 8:259.
132.
Ruiz-FonsF. A review of the current status of relevant zoonotic pathogens in wild swine (Sus scrofa) populations: Changes modulating the risk of transmission to humans. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2017; 64:68–88.
133.
SannöA, AspánA, HestvikG, JacobsonM. Presence of Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in wild boars. Epidemiol Infect, 2014; 142:2542–2547.
134.
SannöA, RosendalT, AspánA, BackhansA, JacobsonM. Distribution of enteropathogenic Yersinia spp. and Salmonella spp. in the Swedish wild boar population, and assessment of risk factors that may affect their prevalence. Acta Vet Scand, 2018; 60:40.
135.
SantosN, AlmeidaV, GortazarC, Correia-NevesM. Patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex excretion and characterization of super-shedders in naturally-infected wild boar and red deer. Vet Res, 2015; 46:129.
136.
SchielkeA, IbrahimV, CzogielI, FaberM, SchraderC, DremsekP, UlrichRG, JohneR. Hepatitis E virus antibody prevalence in hunters from a district in Central Germany, 2013: A cross-sectional study providing evidence for the benefit of protective gloves during disembowelling of wild boars. BMC Infect Dis, 2015; 15:440.
137.
SeoM, OuhI, KimM, LeeJ, KimY, DoJ, KwakD. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a domesticated Korean wild boar (Sus scrofa coreanus). J Food Prot, 2017; 80:1009–1014.
138.
SerraccaL, BattistiniR, RossiniI, MignoneW, PelettoS, BoinC, PistoneG, ErcoliniR, ErcoliniC. Molecular investigation on the presence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in wild game in North-Western Italy. Food Environ Virol, 2015; 7:206–212.
139.
SpahrC, Knauf-WitzensT, VahlenkampT, UlrichRG, JohneR. Hepatitis E virus and related viruses in wild, domestic and zoo animals: A review. Zoonoses Public Health, 2018; 65:11–29.
140.
SpancernieneU, BuitkuvieneJ, GrigasJ, PamparieneI, SalomskasA, CepulieneR, ZymantieneJ, StankeviciusA. Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus in Lithuanian domestic pigs and wildlife. Acta Vet Brno, 2016; 85:319–327.
141.
SpancernieneU, GrigasJ, BuitkuvieneJ, ZymantieneJ, JuozaitieneV, StankeviciuteM, RazukeviciusD, ZieniusD, StankeviciusA. Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis E virus in pigs, wild boars, roe deer, red deer and moose in Lithuania. Acta Vet Scand, 2018; 60:13.
142.
SyczyloK, Platt-SamorajA, Bancerz-KisielA, Szczerba-TurekA, Pajdak-CzausJ, LabucS, ProcajloZ, SochaP, ChuzhebayevaG, SzwedaW. The prevalence of Yersinia enterocolitica in game animals in Poland. PLoS One, 2018; 13:1–11.
143.
SyedSF, ZhaoQ, UmerM, AlagawanyM, UjjanIA, SoomroF, BangulzaiN, BalochAH, Abd El-HackM, et al.Past, present and future of hepatitis E virus infection: Zoonotic perspectives. Microb Pathog, 2018; 119:103–108.
144.
SzaboK, TrojnarE, Anheyer-BehmenburgH, BinderA, SchotteU, EllerbroekL, KleinG, JohneR. Detection of hepatitis E virus RNA in raw sausages and liver sausages from retail in Germany using an optimized method. Int J Food Microbiol, 2015; 215:149–156.
145.
ThiNV, NguyenVD, PraetN, ClaesL, GabriëlS, HuyenNT, DornyP. Trichinella infection in wild boars and synanthropic rats in northwest Vietnam. Vet Parasitol, 2014; 200:207–211.
146.
ThiryD, RoseN, MauroyA, PaboeufF, DamsL, RoelsS, PavioN, ThiryE. Susceptibility of pigs to zoonotic hepatitis E virus genotype 3 isolated from a wild boar. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2017; 64:1589–1597.
147.
TogerM, BenensonI, WangY, CzamanskiD, MalkinsonD. Pigs in space: An agent-based model of wild boar (Sus scrofa) movement into cities. Landsc Urban Plan, 2018; 173:70–80.
148.
TouloudiA, ValiakosG, AthanasiouLV, BirtsasP, GiannakopoulosA, PapaspyropoulosK, KalaitzisC, SokosC, TsokanaCN, et al.A serosurvey for selected pathogens in Greek European wild boar. Vet Rec Open, 2015; 2:e000077.
149.
TuriacIA, CappelliMG, OlivieriR, AngelillisR, MartinelliD, PratoR, FortunatoF. Trichinellosis outbreak due to wild boar meat consumption in southern Italy. Parasit Vectors, 2017; 10:107.
150.
Van DeN, NgaVT, DornyP, TrungNV, MinhPN, DungDT, PozioE. Trichinellosis in Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2015; 92:1265–1270.
151.
von AltrockA, SeinigeD, KehrenbergC. Yersinia enterocolitica isolates from wild boars hunted in lower Saxony, Germany. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2015; 81:4835–4840.
152.
WaapH, NunesT, VazY, LeitãoA. Serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii and Besnoitia besnoiti in a wildlife conservation area in southern Portugal. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Rep, 2016; 3–4:7–12.
153.
WallanderC, FrösslingJ, VågsholmI, UgglaA, LundénA. Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Sweden and evaluation of ELISA test performance. Epidemiol Infect, 2015; 143:1913–1921.
154.
WeigandK, WeigandK, SchemmererM, MüllerM, WenzelJJ. Hepatitis E seroprevalence and genotyping in a cohort of wild boars in Southern Germany and Eastern Alsace. Food Environ Virol, 2018; 10:167–175.
155.
WeinerM, KubajkaM, SzulowskiK, IwaniakW, KrajewskaM, LipiecM. Genotypic virulence markers of Yersinia enterocolitica O:9 isolated from pigs and wild boars serologically positive and negative for brucellosis. Bull Vet Inst Pulawy, 2014; 58:541–545.
156.
WeinerM, Tokarska-RodakM, PlewikD, PanczukA, SzepelukA, KrajewskaM. Preliminary study on the detection of hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibodies in pigs and wild boars in Poland. J Vet Res, 2016; 60:385–389.
157.
WiethoelterAK, Beltrán-AlcrudoD, KockR, MorSM. Global trends in infectious diseases at the wildlife-livestock interface. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2015; 112:9662–9667.
158.
WitkowskiL, CzopowiczM, NagyDA, PotarnicheAV, AoaneiMA, ImomovN, MickiewiczM, WelzM, Szalus-JordanowO, KabaJ. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boars, red deer and roe deer in Poland. Parasite, 2015; 22:17.
159.
ŽeleD, BarryAF, Hakze-Van Der HoningRW, VenguštG, Van Der PoelWHM. Prevalence of anti-hepatitis E virus antibodies and first detection of hepatitis E virus in wild boar in Slovenia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 2016; 16:71–74.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
