Low-microbial diets are advised by many institutions for people with neutropenia resulting from treatment with immunosuppressive drugs or medical conditions that increase their susceptibility to foodborne disease. In this article, the main microbiological hazards associated with foods are outlined, and a low-microbial diet in which higher-risk foods are replaced by lower-risk foods is described.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
[ACMSF] Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food. Report on the safe cooking of burgers. 2007. Food Standards Agency. Available at: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/acmsfburgers0807.pdf, accessed January23, 2014.
2.
AlAskariG, KahouadjiA, KhededK, CharofR, MennaneZ. Physicochemical and microbiological study of “Raisin,” local and imported (Morocco). Middle-East J Sci Res, 2012; 11:01–06.
3.
BarnaudE, RogéeS, GarryP, RoseN, PavioN. Thermal inactivation of infectious hepatitis E virus in experimentally contaminated food. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2012; 78:5153–5159.
4.
BaymanP, BakerJL, MahoneyNE. Aspergillus on tree nuts: Incidence and associations. Mycopathologia, 2002; 155:161–169.
5.
BellBP, GoldoftM, GriffinPM, DavisMA, GordonDC, TarrPI, BartlesonCA, LewisJH, BarrettTJ, WellsJG, BaronR, KobayashiJ. A multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated bloody diarrhea and haemolytic syndrome from hamburgers. J Am Med Assoc, 1994; 272:1349–1353.
6.
BergerCN, SodhaSV, ShawRK, GriffinPM, PinkD, HandP, FrankelG. Fresh fruit and vegetables as vehicles for the transmission of human pathogens. Environ Microbiol, 2010; 12:2385–2397.
7.
BokK, GreenKY. Norovirus gastroenteritis in immunocompromised patients. N Engl J Med, 2012; 367:2126–2132.
8.
BouaklineA, LacroixC, RouxN, GangneuxJP, DerouinF. Fungal contamination of food in hematology units. J Clin Microbiol, 2000; 38:4272–4273.
9.
BoyleRJ, Robins-BrowneRM, TangMLK. Probiotic use in clinical practice: What are the risks?. Am J Clin Nutr, 2006; 83:1256–1264.
BruinsMJ, FernandesTMA, RuijsGJHM, WolfhagenMJHM, van Rijn-van BerkelJM, SchenkBE, van DuynhovenYTHP. Detection of a nosocomial outbreak of salmonellosis may be delayed by application of a protocol for rejection of stool cultures. J Hosp Infect, 2003; 54:93–98.
12.
Castro-RosasJ, Cerna-CortesJF, Mendez-ReyesE, Lopez-FernandezD, Gomez-AldapaCA, Estrada-GarciaT. Presence of faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes in ready-to-eat salads from an area where crops are irrigated with untreated sewage water. Int J Food Microbiol, 2012; 156:176–180.
13.
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreak of Salmonella enteritidis associated with homemade ice cream. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1994; 43:669–671.
14.
CDC. Fatal foodborne Clostridium perfringens illness at a state psychiatric hospital—Louisiana, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2012a;61:605–608.
15.
CDC. Multistate outbreak of listeriosis linked to whole cantaloupes from Jensen Farms, Colorado. 2012b.
16.
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/cantaloupes-jensen-farms/index.html accessed January23, 2014.
17.
CDC. Multistate outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni infections associated with undercooked chicken livers—Northeastern United States, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2013; 62:874–876.
18.
[CMO] Chief Medical Officer. Cryptosporidium in water: Clarification of the advice to the immunocompromised. CMO's Update, 1999; 23:4.
19.
[CFA] Chilled Food Association. Microbiological Guidance for Produce Suppliers to Chilled Food Manufacturers, 2nd ed. Kettering, UK: Chilled Food Association Ltd., 2007.
20.
ClaeysW, CardoenS, DaubeG, De BlockJ, DewettinckK, DierickK, De ZutterL, HuyghebaertA, ImberechtsH, ThiangeP, VandenplasY, HermanL. Raw or heated cow milk consumption: Review of risks and benefits. Food Control, 2013; 31:251–262.
21.
Codex Alimentarius. Codex Standard for fermented milks. Codex Standard 243-2003. 2003. Available at: http://www.codexalimentarius.org, accessed January23, 2014.
22.
Codex Alimentarius. Code of hygienic practice for fresh fruits and vegetables. CAC/RCP 53-2003. 2010. Available at: http://www.codexalimentarius.org, accessed January23, 2014.
23.
Codex Alimentarius. Guidelines on the application of general principles of food hygiene to the control of viruses in food. CAC/GL 79-2012. 2012. Available at: http://www.codexalimentarius.org, accessed January23, 2014.
24.
CrossonC, BakerPJ, CraftJ, TakeuchiY, DaltonHR, ScobieL. Hepatitis E virus genotype 3 in shellfish, United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis, 2012; 18:2085–2087.
25.
CunliffeD, BartramJ, BriandE, ChartierY, ColbourneJ, DruryD, LeeJ, SchaeferB, Surman-LeeS, eds. Water safety in buildings. 2011. World Health Organization. Available at: http://www.who.int, accessed January23, 2014.
26.
DanylukMD, Goodrich-SchneiderRM, SchneiderKR, HarrisLJ, WoroboRW. Outbreaks of foodborne disease associated with fruit and vegetable juices, 1922–2010. 2012. University of Florida IFAS Extension. FSHN12-04. Available at: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fs188, accessed January23, 2014.
27.
DassSC, CumminsEJ, Abu-GhannamN. Prevalence and typing of Listeria monocytogenes strains in retail vacuum-packed cold-smoked salmon in the Republic of Ireland. J Food Saf, 2011; 31:21–27.
Department of Health. Water systems. Health Technical Memorandum 04-01: Addendum. Pseudomonas aeruginosa—advice for augmented care units. 2013. Available at: http://www.gov.uk, accessed January23, 2014.
30.
DesenclosJ-C, BouvetP, Benz-LemoineE, GrimontF, DesqueyrouxH, RebièreI, GrimontPA. Large outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype paratyphi B infection caused by goats' milk cheese, France, 1993: A case finding and epidemiological study. Br Med J, 1996; 312:91–93.
31.
DoorduynY, de JagerCM, van der ZwaluwWK. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 outbreak, the Netherlands, September-October 2005. Euro Surveill, 2006; 11(7):pii=636. Available at: http://eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?Articleid=636, accessed March4, 2014.
32.
[EC] European Commission. EC Regulation No. 852/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs. Off J Eur Union25June2004 L226/3. Available at: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/hiojregulation.pdf, accessed January23, 2014.
33.
EckmannsT, OppertM, MartinM, AmorosaR, ZuschneidI, FreiU, RüdenH, WeistK. An outbreak of hospital-acquired Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection caused by contaminated bottled water in intensive care units. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2008; 14:454–458.
34.
EdwardsDS, MilneLM, MorrowK, SheridanP, VerlanderNQ, MullaR, RichardsonJF, PenderA, LilleyM, ReacherM. Campylobacteriosis outbreak associated with consumption of undercooked chicken liver pâté in the East of England, September 2011: identification of a dose-response risk. Epidemiol Infect, 2014; 142:352–357.
35.
ElvissNC, LittleCL, HucklesbyL, SagooS, Surman-LeeS, de PinnaE, ThrelfallEJ, on behalf of the Food Water and Environmental Surveillance Network. Microbiological study of fresh herbs from retail premises uncovers an international outbreak of salmonellosis. Int J Food Microbiol, 2009; 134:83–88.
36.
EndrikatS, GallagherD, PouillotR, QuesenberryHH, LaBarreDL, SchroederCM, KauseJ. A comparative risk assessment for Listeria monocytogenes in prepackaged versus retail-sliced deli meat. J Food Prot, 2010; 73:612–619.
[EFSA] European Food Safety Authority. Surveillance and monitoring of Toxoplasma in humans, food and animals. EFSA J, 2007; 583:1–64.
39.
EFSA. Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ) Scientific opinion on risk assessment of parasites in fishery products. EFSA J, 2011a;8:1543.
40.
EFSA. Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ) Scientific opinion on an update on the present knowledge on the occurrence and control of foodborne viruses. EFSA J, 2011b;9:2190.
41.
EFSA. Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ). Scientific opinion on the risk posed by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and other pathogenic bacteria in seeds and sprouted seeds. EFSA J, 2011c;9:2424
42.
EFSA. Scientific Opinion on the risk posed by pathogens in food of non-animal origin. Part 1 (outbreak data analysis and risk ranking of food/pathogen combinations). EFSA J, 2013a;11:3025.
43.
EFSA. Analysis of the baseline survey on the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in certain ready-to-eat foods in the EU, 2010–2011. Part A: Listeria monocytogenes prevalence estimates. EFSA J, 2013b;11:3241.
44.
[EFSA ECDC] European Food Safety Authority, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. The European Union Summary Report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents and foodborne outbreaks in 2011. EFSA J, 2013; 11:3129.
45.
FeaginsAR, OpriessnigT, GuenetteDK, HalburPG, MengXJ. Inactivation of infectious hepatitis E virus present in commercial pig livers sold in local grocery stores in the United States. Int J Food Microbiol, 2008; 123:32–37.
46.
[FAO/WHO] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization. Risk assessment of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in seafood: Interpretative summary and Technical report. Microbiological Risk Assessment Series No. 16. FAO/WHO: Rome, 2011, 193 pp.
47.
[FDA/CFSAN] Food and Drug Administration/Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Listeria monocytogenes risk assessment: Interpretive summary. 2003. Updated July22, 2013. Available at: http://www.fda.gov, accessed January23, 2014.
48.
[FDA] Food and Drug Administration. Fish and fishery products hazards and controls guidance. 4th ed. 2011. Available at: http://www.fda.gov, accessed January23, 2014.
49.
FDA. FDA Food Code. 2013a. Available at: http://www.fda.gov, accessed January24, 2014.
50.
FDA. FSMA proposed rule for produce safety: Standards for the growing, harvesting, packing, and holding of produce for human consumption. 2013b. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/FSMA/ucm334114.htm, accessed January23, 2014.
51.
FDA. Draft risk profile: Pathogens and filth in spices. 2013c. Available at: http://www.fda.gov, accessed November7, 2013.
52.
FDA. Foodborne illness: Especially dangerous for the vulnerable. 2013d. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm354783.htm, accessed January24, 2014.
53.
FoxN, FreifeldAG. Moving away from the neutropenic diet and towards a safe food handling approach. J Acad Nutr Diet, 2012; 112(Suppl September):A33.
54.
FrankC, BuchholzU, MaaßM, SchröderA, BrachtK-H, DomkeP-G, RabschW, FellG. Protracted outbreak of S. Enteritidis PT21c in a large Hamburg nursing home. BMC Public Health, 2007; 7:243.
55.
FrankC, WerberD, CramerJP, AskarM, FaberM, an der HeidenM, BernardH, FruthA, PragerR, SpodeA, WadlM, ZoufalyA, JordonS, KempeMJ, FollinP, MüllerL, KingLA, RosnerB, BuchholzU, StarkK, KrauseG. Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli 104:H4 outbreak in Germany. N Engl J Med, 2011; 365:1771–1780.
56.
FriesemaIH, de JongAE, Fitz JamesIA, HeckME, van der KerkhofJH, NotermansDW, van PeltW, HofhuisH. Outbreak of Salmonella Thompson in the Netherlands since July 2012. Euro Surveill, 2012; 17(43):pii=20303. Available at: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?Articleid=20303, accessed March4, 2014.
57.
[FSA] Food Standards Agency. Managing farm manures for food safety. 2009. Available at: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/manuresguidance.pdf, accessed January24, 2014.
58.
FSA. Caterers warned on chicken livers. 2010. Available at: http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2010/jul/livers, accessed January16, 2014.
FSA. Safer food better business for caterers. 2013. Available at: http://www.food.gov.uk accessed January17, 2014.
61.
[FSIS] Food Safety and Inspection Service. FSIS Compliance Guideline: Controlling Listeria monocytogenes in post-lethality exposed ready-to-eat meat and poultry products. 2014. Available at: http://www.fsis.usda.gov, accessed January24, 2014.
62.
GalanSR, KannPH, GressTM, MichlP. Listeria monocytogenes-induced bacterial peritonitis caused by contaminated cheese in a patient with haemochromatosis. Z Gastroenterol, 2011; 49:832–835.
63.
GashgariRM, ShebanyYM, GerbawyYA. Molecular characterization of ochratoxigenic fungi associated with raisins. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2011; 8:1221–1227.
Gillesberg LassenS, SoborgB, MidgleySE, SteensA, VoldL, Stene-JohansenK, Rimhanen-FinneR, KontioM, LöfdahlM, SundqvistL, EdelsteinM, JensenT, VestergaardHT, FischerTK, MølbakK, EthelbergS. Ongoing multi-strain food-borne hepatitis A outbreak with frozen berries as suspect vehicle: Four Nordic countries affected, October 2012 to April 2013. Euro Surveill, 2013; 18(17):pii=20467. Available at http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?Articleid=20467, accessed March4, 2014.
66.
GinsbourgerM, GuinardA, VillenaI, KingLA, El-EidN, SchwoebelV. Collective outbreak of food poisoning due to Toxoplasma gondii associated with the consumption of lamb meat, Aveyron (France), November 2010. Bull Epidemiol Hebdomadaire, 2012; 16/17:195–197. (In French.)
67.
GordonMA. Salmonella infections in immunocompromised adults. J Infect, 2008; 56:413–422.
68.
GouletV, HebertM, HedbergC, LaurentE, VaillantV, De ValkH, DesenclosJ-C. Incidence of listeriosis and related mortality among groups at risk of acquiring listeriosis. Clin Infect Dis, 2012; 54:652–660.
69.
GradelKO, NorgaardM, DethlefsonC, SchønheyderHC, KristensenB, EjlertsenT, NielsenH. Increased risk of zoonotic Salmonella and Campylobacter gastroenteritis in patients with haematological malignancies: A population-based study. Ann Hematol, 2009; 88:761–767.
70.
HallAJ, LopmanBA, PayneDC, PatelMM, GastañaduyPA, VinjéJ, ParasharUD. Norovirus disease in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis, 2013; 19:1198–1205.
71.
HallJ, HodgsonG, KerrKG. Provision of safe potable water for immunocompromised patients in hospital. J Hosp Infect, 2004; 58:155–158.
72.
HalosL, ThébaultA, AubertD, ThomasM, PerretC, GeersR, AlliotA, Escotte-BinetS, AjzenbergD, DardéM-L, DurandB, BoireauP, VillenaI. An innovative survey underlining the significant level of contamination by Toxoplasma gondii of ovine meat consumed in France. Int J Parasitol, 2010; 40:193–200.
73.
HavelaarAH, HaagsmaJA, Mangen M-JJ, KemmerenJM, VerhofLPB, VijgenSMC, WilsonM, FriesmaIHM, KortbeekLM, van DuynhovenTHP, van PeltW. Disease burden of foodborne pathogens in the Netherlands, 2009. Int J Food Microbiol, 2012; 56:231–238.
74.
HempelS, NewberryS, RuelazA, WangZ, MilesJNV, SuttorpMJ, JohnsenB, ShanmanR, SlusserW, FuN, SmithA, RothE, PolakJ, MotalaA, PerryT, ShekellePG. Safety of probiotics used to reduce risk and to prevent or treat disease. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 200. 2011. Available at: http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/tp/probiotictp.htm, accessed January24, 2014.
75.
HeperkanD, MorettiA, DikmenCD, LogriecoAF. Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxin associated with figs in the Mediterranean area. Phytopathol Mediterr, 2012; 51:119–130.
76.
HochbergNS, HamerDH. Aniskidosis: Perils of the deep. Clin Infect Dis, 2010; 51:805–812.
77.
HunterPR. Provision of water in healthcare settings. In: The Microbiological Safety of Food in Healthcare Settings. LundBM, HunterPR. (eds.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008, pp. 337–350.
78.
IamanakaBT, TaniwakiMH, MenezesHC, VicenteE, FungaroMHP. Incidence of toxigenic fungi and ochratoxin A in dried fruits sold in Brazil. Food Addit Contam, 2005; 22:1258–1263.
79.
[ICMSF] International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods. Microorganisms in Foods. Microbial Ecology of Food Commodities. 2nd ed. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2005, pp. 676–679.
80.
IsraelskiDM, RemingtonJS. Toxoplasmosis in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis, 1993; 17(Suppl 2):S423–S435.
81.
IwamotoM, AyersT, MahonB, SwerdlowD. Epidemiology of seafood-associated infections in the United States. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2010; 23:399–411.
82.
JohnsenBO, LingaasE, TorfossD, StrømEH, NordøyI. A large outbreak of Listeria monocytogenes infection with a short incubation period in a tertiary care hospital. J Infect, 2010; 61:465–470.
83.
JubelirerSJ. The benefit of the neutropenic diet: Fact or fiction?. Oncologist, 2011; 16:704–707.
84.
KangJ, TangS, LiuRH, WiedmannM, BoorKJ, BergholzTM, WangS. Effect of curing method and freeze-thawing on subsequent growth of Listeria monocytogenes on cold-smoked salmon. J Food Prot, 2012; 75:1619–1626.
85.
KazanE, MaertensJ, HerbrechtR, WeisserM, GachotB, VekhoffA, CaillotD, RaffouxE, FagotT, RemanO, IsnardF, ThiebautA, BretagneS, CordonnierC. A retrospective series of gut aspergillosis in haematology patients. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2011; 17:588–594.
86.
KiviM, HofhuisA, NotermansDW, WannetWJB, HeckMEOC, van de GiessenAW, van DuynhovenYTHP, StenversOFJ, BosmanA, van PeltW. A beef-associated outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 in The Netherlands with implications for national and international policy. Epidemiol Infect, 2007; 135:890–899.
87.
KochJ, DworakR, PragerR, BeckerB, BrockmannS, WickeA, Wichmann-SchauerH, HofH, WerberD, StarkK. Large listeriosis outbreak linked to cheese made from pasteurized milk, Germany, 2006–7. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2010; 7:1581–1584.
88.
KochanP, ChmielarczykA, SzymaniakL, BrykczynskiM, GalantK, ZynchA, PakoszK, Giedrys-KalembaS, LenouvelE, HeczkoPB. Lactobacillus rhamnosus administration causes sepsis in a cardiosurgical patient: Is the time right to revise probiotic safety guidelines?. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2011; 17:1589–1592.
89.
LambertST, NilssonC, BrådenmarkA, SylvénS, JohanssonA, JanssonL-M, LindbladM. Presence and level of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat foods in Sweden, 2010. Int J Food Microbiol, 2012; 160:24–31.
LeesD. Viruses and bivalve shellfish. Int J Food Microbiol, 2000; 59:81–116.
92.
Leukaemia and Lymphoma Research, UK. Dietary advice for haematology patients with neutropenia. 2013. Available at: http://leukaemialymphomaresearch.org.uk, accessed January24, 2014.
93.
LiongM-T. Safety of probiotics: Translocation and infection. Nutr Rev, 2008; 66:192–202.
94.
LittleCL, De LouvoisJ. The microbiological quality of soft ice-cream from fixed premises and mobile vendors. Int J Environ Health Res, 1999; 9:223–232.
95.
LittleCL, JemmottW, Surman-LeeS, HucklesbyL, de PinnaE. Assessment of the microbiological safety of edible roasted nut kernels on retail sale in England, with a focus on Salmonella. J Food Prot, 2009a;72:853–855.
96.
LittleCL, RawalN, de PinnaE, McLauchlinJ. Prevalence and level of Listeria monocytogenes and other Listeria species in selected retail ready-to-eat foods in the United Kingdom. J Food Prot, 2009b;72:1869–1877.
97.
LittleCL, RawakN, de PinnaE, McLauchlinJ. Survey of Salmonella contamination of edible nut kernels on retail sale in the UK. Food Microbiol, 2010; 27:171–174.
98.
LittleCL, AmarCFL, AwofisayoA, GrantK. Hospital-acquired listeriosis associated with sandwiches in the UK: A cause for concern. J Hosp Infect, 2012; 82:13–18.
99.
LouwenR, van BaarlenP, van VlietAHM, van BelkumA, HaysJP, EndtzHP. Campylobacter bacteremia: A rare and underreported event?. Eur J Microbiol Immunol, 2012; 1:76–78.
100.
LundBM, O'BrienSJ. Microbiological safety of food in hospitals and other healthcare settings. J Hosp Infect, 2009; 73:109–120. Corrigendum. J Hosp Infect 2010;73:412.
101.
LundBM, O'BrienSJ. The occurrence and prevention of foodborne disease in vulnerable people. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2011; 8:961–973.
102.
LuongM-L, SareyyupogluB, NguyenMH, SilveiraFP, ShieldsRK, PotoskiBA, PasculleWA, ClancyCJ, ToyodaY. Lactobacillus probiotic use in cardiothoracic transplant recipients: A link to invasive Lactobacillus infection?. Transplant Infect Dis, 2010; 12:561–564.
103.
LynchMF, TauxeRV, HedbergCW. The growing burden of foodborne outbreaks due to contaminated fresh produce: Risks and opportunities. Epidemiol Infect, 2009; 137:307–315.
104.
MankAP, DaviesM, for the research subgroup of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation Nurses Group (EBMT-NG). Examining low bacterial dietary practice: A survey on low bacterial food. Eur J Oncol Nurs, 2008; 12:342–348.
105.
MarcusR, HurdS, MankL, MsharP, PhanQ, JacksonK, WataridaK, SalfingerY, KimML, KisslerB. Chicken salad as the source of a case of Listeria monocytogenes infection in Connecticut. J Food Prot, 2009; 72:2602–2606.
106.
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, USA. Low microbial diet. 2012. Available at: http://www2.mskcc.org, accessed January24, 2014.
107.
MiettinenMK, BjörkrothKJ, KorkealaHJ. Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes from an ice cream plant by serotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Int J Food Microbiol, 1999; 46:187–192.
108.
[NACMCF] National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. Microbiological safety evaluations and recommendations for sprouted seeds. Int J Food Microbiol, 1999; 52:123–153.
109.
NACMCF. Response to questions posed by the Food and Drug Administration and the Marine Fisheries Service regarding determination of cooking parameters for safe seafood for consumers. J Food Prot, 2008; 1287–1308.
110.
Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust UK. Neutropenic diet. 2012. Available at: http://www.nnuh.nhs.uk, accessed January24, 2014.
O'BrienSJ, MurdochPS, RileyAH, KingI, BarrM, MurdochS, GreigA, MainR, ReillyWJ, Thomson-CaterFM. A foodborne outbreak of Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H-phage type 8 in hospital. J Hosp Infect, 2001; 49:167–172.
113.
OlaimatAN, HolleyRA. Factors influencing the microbial safety of fresh produce: A review. Food Microbiol, 2012; 32:1–19.
114.
OzerH, Oktay BasegmezHI, OzayG. Mycotoxin risks and toxigenic fungi in date, prune and dried apricot among Mediterranean crops. Phytopath Mediterr, 2012; 51:148–157.
115.
PainterJA, HoekstraRM, AyersT, TauxeRV, BradenCR, AnguloFJ, GriffinPM. Attribution of foodborne illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths to food commodities by using outbreak data, United States, 1998–2008. Emerg Infect Dis, 2013; 19:407–418.
116.
PakalniskieneJ, FalkenhorstG, LisbyM, MadsenSB, OlsenKEP, NielsenEM, MyghA, BoelJ, MølbakK. A foodborne outbreak of enterotoxigenic E. coli and Salmonella Anatum infection after a high-school dinner in Denmark, November 2006. Epidemiol Infect, 2009; 137:396–401.
117.
PalumboJD, O'KeeffeTO, VasquezSJ, MahoneyNE. Isolation and identification of ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus section Nigri strains from California raisins. Lett Appl Microbiol, 2011; 52:330–333.
118.
PanZ, BingolG, BrandlMT. Review of current technologies for reduction of Salmonella populations on almonds. Food Bioprocess Technol, 2012; 5:2046–2057.
119.
Public Health England (2013) Outbreak Report. Outbreak of Salmonella Agona phage type 40 associated with the Street Spice Festival, Newcastle upon TyneFebruary/March2013. ILOG 8168. Available at: http://www.newcastle.gov.uk/news-story/street-spice-festival-outbreak-investigation-concludes, accessed January27, 2014.
120.
RamplingA. Raw milk cheeses and salmonella. Br Med J, 1996; 312:67–68.
121.
RomeroSM, ComerioRM, LarumbeG, RitieniA, VaamodeG, Fernández PintoV. Toxigenic fungi isolated from dried vine fruits in Argentina. Int J Food Microbiol, 2005; 104:43–49.
Roswell Park Cancer Institute, USA. Inpatient low microbial diet. 2013. Available at: http://www.roswellpark.org, accessed January24, 2014.
124.
ScallanE, HoekstraRM, AnguloFJ, TauxeRV, WiddowsonM-A, RoySL, JonesJL, GriffinPM. Foodborne illness acquired in the United States—Major pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis, 2011; 17:7–15.
125.
ScerraS, Coignard-BiehlerH, LanternierF, SuarezF, Charlier-WoertherC, BougnouxM-E, GilquinJ, LecuitM, HermineO, LortholaryO. Disseminated toxoplasmosis in non-allografted patients with hematologic malignancies: Report of two cases and literature review. Eur J Microbiol Infect Dis, 2013; 32:1259–1268.
126.
de SchrijverK, BuvensG, PosséB, Van den BrandenD, OosterlynckO, De ZutterL, EflersK, PiérardD, DierickK, Van Damme-LombertsR, LauwersC, JacobsR. Outbreak of verocytotoxin-producing E. coli 0145 and 026 infections associated with the consumption of ice cream produced at a farm, Belgium, 2007. Euro Surveill, 2008; 13(7):pii=8041. Available at http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?Articleid=8041, accessed March4, 2014.
127.
ScobieL, DaltonHR. Hepatitis E: Source and route of infection, clinical manifestations and new developments. J Viral Hepatitis, 2013; 20:1–11.
128.
Scottish Government. Food in hospitals. National catering and nutrition specification for food and fluid provision in hospitals in Scotland. 2008.144 pp. Available at: http://scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/229423/0062185.pdf, accessed January24, 2014.
129.
ShuvalH. Estimating the global burden of thalassogenic diseases: Human infectious diseases caused by wastewater pollution of the marine environment. J Water Health, 2003; 1:53–64.
130.
SmithJP. Shelf life and safety concerns of bakery products—A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2004; 44:19–56.
131.
TamimeAY, RobinsonRK. Tamime and Robinson's Yoghurt. 3rd ed. Abington, Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing Ltd., 2007, p. 363.
132.
ThomasDJI, StrachanN, GoodburnK, RotariuO, HutchisonM. Final report. A review of the published literature and current production and processing practices in smoked fish processing plants with emphasis on contamination by Listeria monocytogenes. FS425012. 2012. Food Standards Agency. Available at: http://foodbase.org.uk/admintools/reportdocuments/775-1-1323_FS425012.pdf, accessed January24, 2014.
133.
TomblynM, KirchhoffL, da CunhaCA, BoeckhMJ. Guidelines for preventing infectious complications among hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients: A global perspective. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant, 2009; 15:1143–1238.
134.
TuttleJ, GomezT, DoyleMP, WellsJG, ZhaoT, TauxeRV, GriffinPM. Lessons from a large outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections: Insights into the infectious dose and method of widespread contamination of hamburger patties. Epidemiol Infect, 1999; 122:185–192.
135.
U.C. Davis Cancer Center, USA. Low-microbial diet. 2012. Available at: http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/cancer, accessed January24, 2014.
136.
van DalenEC, MankA, LeclercqE, MulderRL, DaviesM, KerstenMJ, van de WeteringMD. Low bacterial diet versus control diet to prevent infection in cancer patients treated with chemotherapy causing episodes of neutropenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2012; (9):CD006247.
137.
VojdaniJD, BeuchatLR, TauxeRV. Juice-associated outbreaks of human illness in the United States, 1995 through 2005. J Food Prot, 2008; 71:356–364.
138.
WeatherillS. Report of the Independent Investigator into the 2008 listeriosis outbreak. Canada. 2009. Available at: http://www.cmc-cvc.com/sites/default/files/files/ListeriaIndependentInvestigatorReport_July212009.pdf, accessed January24, 2014.
139.
[WHO] World Health Organization. Five keys to safer food manual. 2006. Available at: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/consumer/manual, accessed January24, 2014.
140.
[WHO/FAO] World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization. Risk assessment of Listeria monocytogenes in RTE foods. MRA Series 5. Rome, 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/en/mra5_contents.pdf, accessed September12, 2013.
141.
WillisC, LittleCL, SagooS, de PinnaE, ThrelfallJ. Assessment of the microbiological safety of edible dried seeds from retail premises in the United Kingdom with a focus on Salmonella spp. Food Microbiol, 2009; 26:847–852.