The novel approach using in situ clogging of small leaks by waterborne or water-formed particles might be used to extend the lifetime or improve the performance of vital water infrastructure assets. Addition of calcium carbonate particles (∼8.8 μm), silica particles (∼29 μm), or wood ash particles (∼160 μm) increased the percent of remediated leaks in iron pipes to 8.3%, 83%, and 83%, respectively, versus 0% in a control with no added particles. Smaller leaks were remediated with a higher percentage of remediated leaks over the 58 day duration of this experiment, as indicated by calcium carbonate with 33% remediated leaks for 280 μm leaks versus 0% for 400–1000 μm leaks; silica, which had 100% remediated leaks for 280–400 μm leaks versus 67% for 700–1000 μm leaks; and wood ash, which had 100% remediated leaks for 280–700 μm leaks versus 67% for 1000 μm leaks. The strength and durability of the clogged leaks could be strong: 27–73% of remediated leaks were able to withstand 100 psi pressure.
AnthonyJ.W., BideauxR.A., BladhK.W., and NicholsM.C. (1990). Handbook of Mineralogy. Tucson, Arizona: Mineral Data Publishing. By permission of the Mineralogical Society of America.
3.
AWWA, APHA, WEF Standard Methods. (1998). 20th ed., Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.
4.
BenjaminM.M., and LawlerD.F. (2013). Water Quality Engineering: Physical/Chemical Treatment Processes. 1st ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
5.
BrazeauR.H., and EdwardsM.E. (2011). A review of the sustainability of residential hot water infrastructure: Public health, environmental impacts, and consumer drivers. J. Green Build., 6, 77.
6.
BundtM., KraussM., BlaserP. and WilckeW. (2001). Forest fertilization with wood ash: Effect on the distribution and storage of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). J. Environ. Quality., 30, 1296.
7.
ChristlI., BrechbühlY., GrafM. and KretzschmarR. (2012). Polymerization of silicate on hematite surfaces and its influence on arsenic sorption. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 13235.
8.
DavisC.C., KnockeW.R., and EdwardsM. (2001). Implications of silica sorption to iron hydroxide: Mobilization of iron colloids and interference with sorption of arsenate and humic substances. Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 3158.
9.
EdwardsM. (2004). Controlling corrosion in drinking water distribution systems: A grand challenge for the 21st century. Water Sci. Technol., 49, 1.
10.
EdzwaldJ.K. (2011). Water Quality & Treatment: A Handbook on Drinking Water. 6th Ed. New York: American Water Works Association, McGraw-Hill Publishing.
11.
EtiegniL., and CampbellA.G. (1991). Physical and chemical characteristics of wood ash. Bioresour. Technol., 37, 173.
12.
FolkmanS., RiceJ., SorensonA., and BraithwaiteN. (2012). Survey of water main failures in the United States and Canada. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 104, 70.
13.
GreyvensteinB., and Van ZylJ.E. (2005). An experimental investigation into the pressure leakage relationship of some failed water pipes. Leakage, Conference Proceedings.
14.
HanaorD., MichelazziM., LeonelliC., and SorrellC.C. (2012). The effects of carboxylic acids on the aqueous dispersion and electrophoretic deposition of ZrO2. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., 32, 235.
15.
HearnN. (1998). Self-sealing, autogenous healing and continued hydration: What is the difference? Mater. Struct. 31, 563.
16.
HearnN., and MorleyC.T. (1997). Self-sealing property of concrete—Experimental evidence. Mater. Struct., 30, 404.
17.
HikiS. (1981). Relationship between leakage and pressure. J. Jpn Waterworks Assoc., 51, 50.
18.
JoyceM.A. and HolderR. (2011). Residential Construction Academy: Plumbing. 2nd Ed. Delmar, NY: Cengage Learning.
19.
KosmulskiM. (2009a). Compilation of PZC and IEP of sparingly soluble metal oxides and hydroxides from literature. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., 152, 14.
20.
KosmulskiM. (2009b). pH-dependent surface charging and points of zero charge. IV. Update and new approach. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 337, 439.
21.
LambertA. (2001). What do we know about pressure/leakage relationships in distribution systems?Proc., IWA-Specialised Conf.: System Approach to Leakage Control and Water Distribution Systems Management, IWA Publishing, London, 89–96.
22.
LeChevallierM.W., YangJ., XuM., and HughesD. (2014). Pressure management: Industry practices and monitoring procedures. WRF Report.
23.
LettermanR., ChenS., LavrykovaN., and SnyderS. (2008). Reducing the rate of leakage from the Delaware Aqueduct using calcium carbonate precipitate—A bench and pilot plant study. Progress Report, New York City Department of Environmental Protection.
24.
LinY.P. and SingerP.C. (2005). Inhibition of calcite crystal growth by polyphosphate. Water Res. 39, 4835.
25.
LytleD.A and NadagoudaM.N. (2010). A comprehensive investigation of copper pitting corrosion in a drinking water distribution system. Corros. Sci., 52, 1927.
26.
McNeillL.S., and EdwardsM. (2001). Iron pipe corrosion in distribution systems. J. Am. Water Works. Assoc., 93, 88.
27.
MisraM.L, RaglandK.W., and BakerA.J. (1993). Wood ash composition as a function of furnace temperature. Biomass Bioenergy. 4, 103.
28.
MontgomeryJ.M. (1985). Water Treatment Principles and Design. Pasadena, California: Consulting Engineers, Inc. Publishing.
29.
ParksJ., EdwardsM., VikeslandP., and DudiA. (2010). Effects of bulk water chemistry on autogenous healing of concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 22, 515.
30.
PitmanR.M. (2006). Wood ash use in forestry—A review of the environmental impacts. Forestry. 79, 563.
31.
PollioM.V. (1914). Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture. Translated by Morgan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
32.
RushingJ.C., McNeillL.S. and EdwardsM. (2003). Some effects of aqueous silica on the corrosion of iron. Water Res. 37, 1080.
33.
ScardinaP., ShefferG. and EdwardsM. (2008). Investigation of Copper Pipe Failures at Community E. Assessment of Non-Uniform Corrosion in Copper Piping. Denver, CO: AWWARF.
34.
ShanaghanP. (2012). Assessing drinking water infrastructure need. J. Am. Water Works. Assoc., 104, 14.
35.
SmithL.A., FieldsK.A., ChenA.S.C. and TafuriA.N. (2000). Options for Leak and Break Detection and Repair of Drinking Water Systems. Columbus, OH: Battlelle Press.
36.
SomasundaranP., and AgarG.E. (1967). The zero point of charge of calcite. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 24, 433.
37.
TangM., and EdwardsM. (2017a). Impact of leak size, pipe wall thickness, water pressure and leak orientation on autogenous metallic pipe leak repair. DOI: 10.5006/2323. In Press.
38.
TangM., and EdwardsM. (2017b). Water chemistry impact on autogenous metallic pipe leak repair in simulated potable water systems. DOI: 10.5006/2442. In press.
39.
TangM., TriantafyllidouS., and EdwardsM. (2013). In situ remediation of leaks in potable water supply systems. Corros. Rev., 31, 105.
40.
TangM., TriantafyllidouS., and EdwardsM. (2015). Autogenous metallic pipe leak repair in potable water systems. Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 8697.
41.
TaylorP. (1995). Interactions of Silica with Iron Oxides: effects on Oxide Transformation Sand Sorption Properties. Ontario, Canada: Scientific Document Distribution Office (SDDO), Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL-11257).
42.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). (1986). National primary and secondary drinking water regulations. Final Rule. Federal Register., 51:63:11396.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
