The combined technology of electrokinetic (EK)-assisted bioremediation was used on field soil from a Beijing Coking Plant in China to assess its feasibility in remediating field soils. Total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentration in the soil was 91.4 mg/kg, with a high level of high-molecular-weight PAHs. During 200 days of EK-assisted bioremediation, neutral soil pH was maintained by periodically changing the direction of the electronic field. Electrical conductivity of the soil in the EK cell was higher than that in the control soil. Meanwhile, ammonium and phosphate could be effectively injected into the soil by the electric field. Degradation rates of all 16 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) priority PAHs at different sampling positions in the EK cell were twice as high as those in the control soil. The number of PAH degraders in the EK cell was enhanced compared to those in the control at the end of the experiment. Polymerase chain reaction–denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) results indicated that the soils sampled near the electrodes in the EK cell showed relatively greater biodiversity compared to those in the control system. Hence, the present study provides a promising bioremediation technology for remediation of soils contaminated by PAHs.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AcarY.B., RabbiM.F., and OzsuE.E. (1997). Electrokinetic injection of ammonium and sulfate ions into sand and kaolinite beds. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 123, 239.
2.
BushnellL.D., and HaasH.F. (1941). Utilization of certain hydrocarbon by microorganisms. J. Bacteriol., 41, 653.
3.
ChandrasekharK., and Venkata MohanS. (2012). Bio-electrochemical remediation of real field petroleum sludge as an electron donor with simultaneous power generation facilitates biotransformation of PAH: effect of substrate concentration. Bioresour. Technol., 110, 517.
4.
D'AnnibaleA., RicciM., LeonardiV., QuaratinoD., MincioneE., and PetruccioliM. (2005). Degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons by white-rot fungi in a historically. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 90, 723.
5.
DeFlaunM.F., and CondeeC.W. (1997). Electrokinetic transport of bacteria. J. Hazard. Mater., 55, 263.
6.
FanR., GuoS., LiT., LiF., YangX., and WuB. (2015). Contributions of electrokinetics and bioremediation in the treatment of different petroleum components. Clean Soil Air Water, 43, 251.
7.
GarbevaP., Van VeenJ., and Van ElsasJ. (2003). Predominant Bacillus spp. in agricultural soil under different management regimes detected via PCR-DGGE. Microb. Ecol., 45, 305.
8.
GillR.T., HarbottleM.J., SmithJ.W.N., and ThorntonS.F. (2014). Electrokinetic-enhanced bioremediation of organic contaminants: a review of processes and environmental applications. Chemosphere, 107, 31.
9.
HoS.V., AthmerC.J., SheridanP.W., and ShapiroA.P. (1997). Scale-up aspects of the Lasagna (TM) process for in situ soil decontamination. J. Hazard. Mater., 55, 39.
10.
ISO 4831. (1991). Microbiology—general guidance for the enumeration of coliforms—most probable number technique. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
11.
KhodadoustA.P., ReddyK.R., and MaturiK. (2005). Effect of different extraction agents on metal and organic contaminant removal from a field soil. J. Hazard. Mater., 117, 15.
12.
KimS., and HanS. (2003). Application of an enhanced electrokinetic ion injection system to bioremediation. Water Air Soil Pollut. 146, 376.
13.
KoS.O., SchlautmanM.A., and CarrawayE.R. (2000). Cyclodextrin-enhanced electrokinetic removal of phenanthrene from a model clay soil. Environ. Sci. Technol., 34, 1535.
14.
LaParaT.M., NakatsuC.H., PanteaL.M., and AllemanJ.E. (2002). Stability of the bacterial communities supported by a seven-stage biological process treating pharmaceutical wastewater as revealed by PCR-DGGE. Water Res. 36, 639.
15.
LearG., HarbottleM.J., van der GastC.J., JackmanS.A., KnowlesC.J., SillsG., and ThompsonI.P. (2004). The effect of electrokinetics on soil microbial communities. Soil Biol. Biochem., 36, 1751.
LiT., YuanS., WanJ., LinL., LongH., WuX., and LuX. (2009). Pilot-scale electrokinetic movement of HCB and Zn in real contaminated sediments enhanced with hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin. Chemosphere, 76, 1226.
18.
LiT., YuanS., WanJ., and LuX. (2010). Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin enhanced electrokinetic remediation of sediment contaminated with HCB and heavy metals. J. Hazard. Mater., 176, 306.
19.
LiuG., JiangN., ZhanL., and LiuZ. (1996a). Soil Physical and Chemical Analysis Description of Soil Profiles Environmental Sampling. Beijing: China Standard Methods Press.
20.
LiuH., WangC., ZhangZ., WuW., HaoZ., and SunH. (2011). [Isolation of highly-effective benzo[a]pyrene degrading strain and its degradation capacity]. Envion. Sci. 32, 2696 (in Chinese).
21.
LoganB.E., and RabaeyK. (2012). Microbial electrochemical technologies conversion of wastes into bioelectricity and chemicals by using microbial electrochemical technologies. Science, 337, 686.
22.
LuoQ., WangH., ZhangX., FanX., and QianY. (2006). In situ bioelectrokinetic remediation of phenol-contaminated soil by use of an electrode matrix and a rotational operation mode. Chemosphere, 64, 415.
23.
Maliszewska-KordybachB. (1996). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in agricultural soils in Poland: preliminary proposals for criteria to evaluate the level of soil contamination. Appl. Geochem., 11, 121.
24.
MaturiK., and ReddyK.R. (2006). Simultaneous removal of organic compounds and heavy metals from soils by electrokinetic remediation with a modified cyclodextrin. Chemosphere, 63, 1022.
25.
Niqui-ArroyoJ.-L., and Ortega-CalvoJ.-J. (2007). Integrating biodegradation and electroosmosis for the enhanced removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from creosote-polluted soils. J. Environ. Qual., 36, 1444.
26.
ParkJ.-Y., LeeH.-H., KimS.-J., LeeY.-J., and YangJ.-W. (2007). Surfactant-enhanced electrokinetic removal of phenanthrene from kaolinite. J. Hazard. Mater., 140, 230.
27.
PelaezA., LoresI., SotresA., Mendez-GarciaC., Fernandez-VelardeC., SantosJ., GallegoJ., and SanchezJ. (2013). Design and field-scale implementation of an ‘on site’ bioremediation treatment in PAH-polluted soil. Environ. Pollut., 181, 190.
28.
RhoadesJ.D., ManteghiN.A., ShouseP.J., and AlvesW.J. (1989). Soil electrical conductivity and soil salinity: new formulations and calibrations. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 53, 433.
29.
SaichekR.E., and ReddyK.R. (2004). Evaluation of surfactants/cosolvents for desorption/solubilization of phenanthrene in clayey soils. Int. J. Environ. Res., 61, 587.
30.
SaichekR.E., and ReddyK.R. (2005). Surfactant-enhanced electrokinetic remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heterogeneous subsurface environments. J. Environ. Eng. Sci., 4, 327.
31.
SchmidtC.A.B., BarbosaM.C., and AlmeidaM.S.S. (2007). A laboratory feasibility study on electrokinetic injection of nutrients on an organic, tropical clayey soil. J. Hazard. Mater., 143, 655.
32.
StarkJ.M., and FirestoneM.K. (1995). Mechanisms for soil moisture effects on activity of nitrifying bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61, 218.
33.
TaoX.-Q., LuG.-N., DangZ., YangC., and YiX.-Y. (2007). A phenanthrene-degrading strain Sphingomonas sp. GY2B isolated from contaminated soils. Process Biochem., 42, 401.
34.
WangC.P., SunH.W., LiJ.M., LiY.M., and MangQ.M. (2009). Enzyme activities during degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium in soils. Chemosphere, 77, 733.
35.
WickL.Y., MattleP.A., WattiauP., and HarmsH. (2004). Electrokinetic transport of PAH-degrading bacteria in model aquifers and soil. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 4596.
36.
WrennB.A., and VenosaA.D. (1996). Selective enumeration of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon degrading bacteria by a most-probable-number procedure. Can. J. Microbiol., 42, 254.
37.
XuH., ChenW., WangC., ChenB., and YangJ. (2012). An enhanced electrokinetic remediation of saline lands by sludge layer. J. Food Agric. Environ., 10, 709.
38.
XuW., WangC., LiuH., ZhangZ., and SunH. (2010). A laboratory feasibility study on a new electrokinetic nutrient injection pattern and bioremediation of phenanthrene in a clayey soil. J. Hazard. Mater., 184, 798.
39.
YeungA.T., and GuY.-Y. (2011). A review on techniques to enhance electrochemical remediation of contaminated soils. J. Hazard. Mater., 195, 11.
40.
YuY., XuJ., WangP., SunH., and DaiS. (2009). Sediment-porewater partition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from Lanzhou Reach of Yellow River, China. J. Hazard. Mater., 165, 494.
41.
ZhangZ., WangC., LiJ., WangB., WuJ., JiangY., and SunH. (2014). Enhanced bioremediation of soil from Tianjin, China, contaminated with polybrominated diethyl ethers. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 21, 14037.
42.
ZhouD.M., DengC.F., CangL., and AlshawabkehA.N. (2005). Electrokinetic remediation of a Cu–Zn contaminated red soil by controlling the voltage and conditioning catholyte pH. Chemosphere, 61, 519.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
