Effectiveness of basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) for removing dissolved phosphorus (P) was evaluated in a hypolimnetic withdrawal system. Lake water collected from the hypolimnion, with phosphate (PO4-P) concentrations of 0.25 to 0.49 mg/L, was passed through a pilot-scale (pore volume, ∼0.87 m3) treatment system over two successive summers. In year 1, the hydraulic retention time (HRT) varied from 0.58 to 1.64 days and 96.1–98.1% PO4-P was removed. The HRT in year 2 was 0.31 to 0.48 days and PO4-P removal was 97.4–99.9%. Effluent pH was 11.37±0.17 and 11.96±0.17 in years 1 and 2, respectively, with the increase attributed to dissolution of CaO and Ca(OH)2 from the BOFS. The effluent was neutralized by addition of CO2(g) before the water was discharged. Vanadium and aluminum were released from the BOFS, and were subsequently removed through addition of a filter containing 5 wt.% granular zero valent iron with a balance of silica sand and by neutralizing pH. Solid phase analyses conducted on the spent media, including FESEM-EDX, XPS, FTIR, and XANES spectroscopy, confirmed the presence of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate minerals. Diminished hydraulic performance was observed in year 1, which was attributed to CaCO3 accumulation on the spent BOFS media. Restricting ingress of atmospheric CO2 into the system in year 2 minimized the extent of CaCO3 accumulation on the treatment media and led to improved hydraulic characteristics. Results show potential for long-term removal of phosphorus.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AjiboyeB., AkinremiO.O., HuY., and JürgensenA. (2008). XANES speciation of phosphorus in organically amended and fertilized Vertisol and Mollisol. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J., 72, 1256.
2.
APHA, AWWA, and WEF (2005). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st ed. Washington, DC: National Government Publication.
3.
BakerM.J., BlowesD.W., and PtacekC.J. (1998). Laboratory development of permeable reactive mixtures for the removal of phosphorus from onsite wastewater disposal systems. Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 2308.
4.
BowdenL.I., JarvisA.P., YoungerP.L., and JohnsonK.L. (2009). Phosphorus removal from waste waters using basic oxygen steel slag. Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 2476.
5.
BrandesJ.A., IngallE., and PatersonD. (2007). Characterization of minerals and organic phosphorus species in marine sediments using soft X-ray fluorescence spectromicroscopy. Mar. Chem., 103, 250.
6.
CaoX., and HarrisW. (2008). Carbonate and magnesium interactive effect on calcium phosphate precipitation. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42, 436.
7.
CarpenterS.R., CaracoN.F., CorrellD.L., HowarthR.W., SharpleyA.N., and SmithV.H. (1998). Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl., 8, 559.
8.
ChaurandP., RoseJ., BrioisV., OliviL., HazemannJ.-L., ProuxO., DomasJ., and BotteroJ.-Y. (2007). Environmental impacts of steel slag reused in road construction: A crystallographic and molecular (XANES) approach. J. Hazard. Mater., B139, 537.
9.
ChazarencF., BrissonJ., and ComeauY. (2007). Slag columns for upgrading phosphorus removal from constructed wetland effluents. Water Sci. Technol., 56, 109.
10.
CorrellD.L. (1999). Phosphorus: A rate limiting nutrient in surface waters. Poult. Sci., 78, 674.
11.
DrizoA., ForgetC., ChapuisR.P., and ComeauY. (2006). Phosphorus removal by electric arc furnace steel slag and serpentinite. Water Res., 40, 1547.
12.
DrizoA., FrostC.A., GraceJ., and SmithK.A. (1999). Physico-chemical screening of phosphate-removing substrates for use in constructed wetland systems. Water Res., 33, 3595.
13.
EichertD., SalomeM., BanuM., SusiniaJ., and ReyC. (2005). Preliminary characterization of calcium chemical environment in apatitic and non-apatitic calcium phosphates of biological interest by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Spectrochim. Acta B., 60, 850.
14.
EvebornD., GustafssonJ.P., and HillierS. (2009). XANES speciation of P in environmental samples: An assessment of filter media for on-site wastewater treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 6515.
15.
GilletP., McMillanP., SchottJ., BadroJ., and GrzechnikA. (1996). Thermodynamic properties and isotopic fractionation of calcite from vibrational spectroscopy of 18O-substituted calcite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 60, 3471.
16.
GlantzS.A. (2012). Primer of Biostatistics, 7th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
17.
GoldenbergS.Z., and LehmanJ.T. (2012). Diatom response to the whole lake manipulation of a eutrophic urban impoundment. Hydrobiologia, 691, 71.
18.
GunasekaranS., and AnbalaganG. (2008). Spectroscopic study of phase transitions in natural calcite mineral. Spectrochim. Acta A., 69, 1246.
19.
GüngörK., JürgensenA., and KarthikeyanK.G. (2007). Determination of phosphorus speciation in dairy manure using XRD and XANES spectroscopy. J. Environ. Qual., 36, 1856.
20.
HesterbergD., ZhouW., HutchisonK.J., BeaucheminS., and SayersD.E. (1999). XAFS study of adsorbed and mineral forms of phosphate. J. Synchrotron. Rad., 6, 636.
21.
JohanssonL., and GustafssonJ.P. (2000). Phosphate removal using blast furnace slags and opoka-mechanisms. Water Res., 34, 259.
22.
KellyS., HesterbergD., and RavelB. (2008). Analysis of soils and minerals using x-ray absorption spectroscopy. In UleryA.L., and DreesR., Eds., Methods of Soil Analysis. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America, p. 387.
23.
KhareN., MartinJ.D., and HesterbergD. (2007). Phosphate bonding configuration on ferrihydrite based on molecular orbital calculations and XANES fingerprinting. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 71, 4405.
24.
KimE.-H., HwangH.-K., and YimS.-B. (2006). Phosphorus removal characteristics in hydroxyapatite crystallization using converter slag. J. Environ. Sci. Health A., 41, 2531.
25.
KoretskyC.M., MacLeodA., SibertR.J., and SnyderC. (2012). Redox stratification and salinization of three kettle lakes in Southwest Michigan, USA. Water Air Soil Pollut., 223, 1415.
26.
KortmannR.W., DavisE., FrinkC.R., and HenryD.D. (1982). Hypolimnetic withdrawal: Restoration of Lake Wononscopomuc, Connecticut. Presented at Lake Restoration, Protection, and Management, Vancouver, BC, Canada, October 26–29.
27.
KosmulskiM. (2009). Surface Charging and Points of Zero Charge. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
28.
KosteckiM., and SuschkaJ. (2013). The successful results of Pławniowice Reservoir (Upper Silesia Region—South of Poland) restoration by hypolimnetic withdrawal. Arch. Environ. Prot., 39, 17.
29.
LampertW., and SommerU. (2007). Limnoecology: The Ecology of Lakes and Streams. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
30.
MatkovićI., Maltar-StrmečkiN., Babić-IvančićV., Dutour SikirićM., and Noethig-LasloV. (2012). Characterisation of β-tricalcium phosphate-based bone substitute materials by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Radiat. Phys. Chem., 81, 1621.
31.
MikhailS.A., OwensD.R., D.R., WangD.R., LastraR., and Van HuyssteenE. (1994). Characterization of Basic Oxygen Furnace Dust and Slag in Steelmaking. Mineral Sciences Laboratories, Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology, Division, Ottawa, ON, Report No. 94-18 (R), MSL Project. 691, pp. 1–41.
32.
MorseG.K., BrettS.W., GuyJ.A., and LesterJ.N. (1998). Review: Phosphorus removal and recovery technologies. Sci. Total Environ., 212, 69.
33.
MortulaM., GibbonsM., and GagnonG.A. (2007). Phosphorus adsorption by naturally-occurring materials and industrial by-products. J. Environ. Eng. Sci., 6, 157.
34.
NavarroC., DiazM., and Villa-GarciaM.A. (2010). Physico-chemical characterization of steel slag. Study of its behavior under simulated environmental conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 5383.
35.
NiM., and RatnerB.D. (2008). Differentiating calcium carbonate polymorphs by surface analysis techniques—An XPS and TOF-SIMS study. Surf. Interface. Anal., 40, 1356.
36.
NürnbergG.K., HartleyR., and DavisE. (1987). Hypolimnetic withdrawal in two North American lakes with anoxic phosphorus release from the sediment. Water Res., 21, 923.
37.
NürnbergG.K., LaZerteB.D., and OldingD.D. (2003). An artificially induced Planktothrix rubescens surface bloom in a small kettle lake in Southern Ontario compared to blooms world-wide. Lake Reserv. Manage., 19, 307.
38.
NürnbergG.K., and PetersR.H. (1984). The importance of internal phosphorus load to the eutrophication of lakes with anoxic hypolimnia. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol., 22, 190.
39.
OguzE. (2004). Removal of phosphate from aqueous solution with blast furnace slag. J. Hazard. Mater., B114, 131.
40.
OkochiN.C., and McMartinD.W. (2011). Laboratory investigations of stormwater remediation via slag: Effects of metals on phosphorus removal. J. Hazard. Mater., 187, 250.
41.
ParkhurstD.L., and AppeloC.A.J. (1999). Users Guide to PHREEQC (Version2)-A Computer Program for Speciation, Batch-Reaction, One-Dimensional Transport, and Inverse Geochemical Calculations. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4259: 312; U.S. Geological Survey: Washington, D.C.
42.
ParksG.A. (1965). The isoelectric points of solid oxides, solid hydroxides, and aqueous hydroxo complex systems. Chem. Rev., 65, 177.
43.
ParryR. (1998). Agricultural phosphorus and water quality: A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency perspective. J. Environ. Qual., 27, 258.
44.
PeakD., SimsJ.T., and SparksD.L. (2002). Solid-state speciation of natural and alum-amended poultry litter using XANES spectroscopy. Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 4253.
45.
PenaJ., and Vallet-RegiM. (2003). Hydroxyapatite, tricalcium phosphate and biphasic materials prepared by a liquid mix technique. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., 23, 1687.
46.
ProctorD.M., FehlingK.A., ShayE.C., WittenbornJ.L., GreenJ.J., AventC., BighamR.D., ConnollyM., LeeB., ShepkerT.O., and ZakM.A. (2000). Physical and chemical characteristics of blast furnace, basic oxygen furnace, and electric arc furnace steel industry slags. Environ. Sci. Technol., 34, 1576.
47.
RavelB., and NewvilleM. (2005). Athena, Artemis, Hephaestus: data analysis for X-ray absorption spectroscopy using IFEFFIT. J. Synchrotron Rad., 12, 537.
48.
RehmanI., and BonfieldW. (1997). Characterization of hydroxyapatite and carbonated apatite by photo acoustic FTIR spectroscopy. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. M., 8, 1.
49.
SakadevanK., and BavorH.J. (1998). Phosphate adsorption characteristics of soils, slags and zeolite to be used as substrates in constructed wetland systems. Water Res., 32, 393.
50.
SatoS., SolomonD., HylandC., KetteringsQ.M., and LehmannJ. (2005). Phosphorus speciation in manure and manure-amended soils using XANES spectroscopy. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 7485.
51.
SchindlerD.W. (1977). Evolution of phosphorus limitation in lakes. Natural mechanisms compensate for deficiencies of nitrogen and carbon in eutrophic lakes. Science., 195, 260.
52.
SchindlerD.W., HeckyR.E., FindlayD.L., StaintonM.P., ParkerB.R., PatersonM.J., BeatyK.G., LyngM., and KasianS.E.M. (2008). Eutrophication of lakes cannot be controlled by reducing nitrogen input: results of a 37-year whole lake ecosystem experiment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 105, 11254.
53.
ShoberA.L., HesterbergD.L., SimsJ.T., and GardnerS. (2006). Characterization of phosphorus species in biosolids and manures using XANES spectroscopy. J. Environ. Qual., 35, 1983.
54.
SmythD.J.A., BlowesD.W., PtacekC.J., BakerM.J., and McRaeC.W.T. (2002). Steel production wastes for use in permeable reactive barriers (PRBs). Presented at the 3rd International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds,Monterey, California, May 20–23.
55.
StummW., and MorganJ.J. (1981). Aquatic Chemistry–An Introduction Emphasizing Chemical Equilibria in Natural Waters., 2nd Ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
56.
SverjenskyD.A. (1994). Zero point of charge prediction from crystal chemistry and solvation theory. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 58, 3123.
57.
VohlaC., KõivM., BavorH.J., ChazarencF., and ManderÜ. (2011). Filter materials for phosphorus removal from wastewater in treatment wetlands-A review. Ecol. Eng., 37, 70.
58.
VongsavatV., WinotaiP., and MeejooS. (2006). Phase transitions of natural corals monitored by ESR spectroscopy. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B., 243, 167.
59.
XueY., HouH., and ZhuS. (2009). Characteristics and mechanisms of phosphate adsorption onto basic oxygen furnace slag. J. Hazard. Mater., 162, 973.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
