In recent years, “green” nanomaterial synthesis methods that rely upon natural alternatives to industrial chemicals have been increasingly studied. Although the feasibility of synthesizing nanoparticles (NPs) using phytochemicals, carbohydrates, and other biomolecules is well established, environmental burdens of these synthesis processes have not been critically evaluated from a life cycle perspective. Environmental impacts of nanotechnologies may potentially be reduced by applying green chemistry principles. However, doing so without evaluating the life cycle impacts of the processes may be misleading; merely replacing a conventional chemical with a natural or renewable alternative may not reduce environmental impacts. To explore this issue, we conducted a comparative, screening-level life cycle assessment (LCA) of gold nanoparticle (AuNP) synthesis using three conventional reducing agents and 13 green reducing agents. We found that a substantial portion of the energy footprint of AuNP synthesis is due to the embodied energy in gold. As a result of this embodied energy, even green AuNP synthesis methods have significant environmental impacts that are highly dependent upon reaction times and yields. Our results showed that LCA can elucidate the different environmental impacts of AuNP synthesis processes, help in choosing processes with reduced life cycle impacts, and directing decisions for future research and data collection efforts. We also discuss some challenges in conducting LCAs for nanotechnologies and highlight some major gaps in the green nano-synthesis literature that limit the comparability of reported green synthesis protocols. This research showed that screening-level LCAs can direct nanotechnology research toward more environmentally sustainable paths.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AnastasP.T., and WarnerJ.C. (2000). Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice. London, England: Oxford University Press.
2.
AnctilA., BabbittC.W., RaffaelleR.P., and LandiB.J. (2011). Material and energy intensity of fullerene production. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 2353.
3.
APHA. (1998). American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, part, 3, 45.
4.
AvraamidesM., and FattaD. (2008). Resource consumption and emissions from olive oil production: a life cycle inventory case study in Cyprus. J. Clean. Prod., 16, 809.
5.
BankarA., JoshiB., KumarA.R., and ZinjardeS. (2010). Banana peel extract mediated synthesis of gold nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 80, 45.
6.
Bar-IlanO., AlbrechtR.M., FakoV.E., and FurgesonD.Y. (2009). Toxicity assessments of multisized gold and silver nanoparticles in zebrafish embryos. Small, 5, 1897.
7.
BareJ. (2011). TRACI 2.0: the tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts 2.0. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy, 13, 687.
8.
BaruwatiB., and VarmaR.S. (2009). High value products from waste: grape pomace extract: a three-in-one package for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles. ChemSusChem., 2, 1041.
9.
BauerC., BuchgeisterJ., HischierR., PoganietzW.R., SchebekL., and WarsenJ. (2008). Towards a framework for life cycle thinking in the assessment of nanotechnology. J. Clean. Prod., 16, 910.
10.
CastroL., BlázquezM.L., MuñozJ.A., GonzálezF., García-BalboaC., and BallesterA. (2011). Biosynthesis of gold nanowires using sugar beet pulp. Process Biochem., 46, 1076.
11.
ChandaN., ShuklaR., ZambreA., MekapothulaS., KulkarniR., KattiK., BhattacharyyaK., FentG., CasteelS., BooteE., ViatorJ., UpendranA., KannanR., and KattiK. (2011). An effective strategy for the synthesis of biocompatible gold nanoparticles using cinnamon phytochemicals for phantom CT imaging and photoacoustic detection of cancerous cells. Pharm. Res., 28, 279.
12.
DasS.K., and MarsiliE. (2010). A green chemical approach for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles: characterization and mechanistic aspect. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol., 9, 199.
13.
DeorsolaF.A., RussoN., BlenginiG.A., and FinoD. (2012). Synthesis, characterization and environmental assessment of nanosized MoS2 particles for lubricants applications. Chem. Eng. J.195–196, 1–6.
14.
DialloM., and BrinkerC.J. (2011). Nanotechnology for sustainability: environment, water, food, minerals, and climate. In Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal Needs in 2020. RocoM.C., WilliamsR.S., AlivisatosP. (Eds.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, pp. 221–259.
15.
DreadenE.C., AlkilanyA.M., HuangX., MurphyC.J., and El-SayedM.A. (2012). The golden age: gold nanoparticles for biomedicine. Chem. Soc. Rev., 41, 2740.
16.
DwivediA.D., and GopalK. (2010). Biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Chenopodium album leaf extract. Colloids Surf. A, 369, 27.
17.
EckelmanM.J., MauterM.S., IsaacsJ.A., and ElimelechM. (2012). New perspectives on nanomaterial aquatic ecotoxicity: production impacts exceed direct exposure impacts for carbon nanotoubes. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 2902.
18.
FanQ.L., LiuX.F., MiaoL.K., JiangX., MaY.W., and HuangW. (2011). Highly sensitive fluorometric Hg(2+) biosensor with a mercury(II)-specific oligonucleotide (MSO) probe and water-soluble graphene oxide (WSGO). Chin. J. Chem., 29, 1031.
19.
FrensG. (1973). Controlled nucleation for the regulation of the particle size in monodisperse gold suspensions. Nature, 241, 20.
20.
FrischknechtR., BüsserS., and KrewittW. (2009). Environmental assessment of future technologies: how to trim LCA to fit this goal?. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 14, 584.
21.
FrischknechtR., JungbluthN., AlthausH.-J., DokaG., DonesR., HeckT., HellwegS., HischierR., NemecekT., and RebitzerG. (2005). The ecoinvent database: overview and methodological framework (7 pp). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 10, 3.
22.
FrischknechtR., JungbluthN., AlthausH.J., BauerC., DokaG., DonesR., HischierR., HellwegS., HumbertS., and KöllnerT. (2007). Implementation of life cycle impact assessment methods. EcoInvent Rep., 3, v 2.0.
23.
GaoT., JelleB.P., SandbergL.I., and GustavsenA. (2013). Monodisperse hollow silica nanospheres for nano insulation materials: synthesis, characterization, and life cycle assessment. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 5, 761.
24.
Garcia-MartinezJ.C., LezutekongR., and CrooksR.M. (2005). Dendrimer-encapsulated Pd nanoparticles as aqueous, room-temperature catalysts for the stille reaction. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 127, 5097.
25.
GavankarS., SuhS., and KellerA. (2012). Life cycle assessment at nanoscale: review and recommendations. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 17, 295.
26.
GoedkoopM., HeijungsR., HuijbregtsM., De SchryverA., StruijsJ., and van ZelmR. (2009). ReCiPe 2008. A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level, First Edition Report I: Characterization. Den Haag, Netherlands: VROM.
27.
GreenA.A., and HersamM.C. (2010). Emerging methods for producing monodisperse graphene dispersions. J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 1, 544.
28.
GuinéeJ.B., HeijungsR., HuppesG., ZamagniA., MasoniP., BuonamiciR., EkvallT., and RydbergT. (2011). Life cycle assessment: past, present, and future. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 90.
29.
HauschildM.Z., HuijbregtsM., JollietO., MacleodM., MargniM., van de MeentD., RosenbaumR.K., and McKoneT.E. (2008). Building a model based on scientific consensus for life cycle impact assessment of chemicals: the search for harmony and parsimony. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42, 7032.
30.
HayashiK., MakinoN., ShobatakeK., and HokazonoS. (2013). Influence of scenario uncertainty in agricultural inputs on life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production systems: the case of chemical fertilizers in Japan. J. Clean. Prod., 73, 109.
31.
HellandA., and KastenholzH. (2008). Development of nanotechnology in light of sustainability. J. Clean. Prod., 16, 885.
32.
HesselV., RenkenA., SchoutenJ.C., and YoshidaJ.-I. (2009). Micro Process Engineering: A Comprehensive Handbook. Mörlenbach, Germany. John Wiley & Sons.
33.
HetheringtonA.C., BorrionA.L., GriffithsO.G., and McManusM.C. (2014). Use of LCA as a development tool within early research: challenges and issues across different sectors. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 19, 130.
34.
HischierR., and WalserT. (2012). Life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials: state of the art and strategies to overcome existing gaps. Sci. Total Environ., 425, 271.
HuangJ., LiQ., SunD., LuY., SuY., YangX., WangH., WangY., ShaoW., HeN., HongJ., and ChenC. (2007). Biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles by novel sundried Cinnamomum camphora leaf. Nanotechnology, 18, 105104.
37.
HullM.S., ChaurandP., RoseJ., AuffanM., BotteroJ.-Y., JonesJ.C., SchultzI.R., and VikeslandP.J. (2011). Filter-feeding bivalves store and biodeposit colloidally stable gold nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 6592.
38.
HutchisonJ.E. (2008). Greener nanoscience: a proactive approach to advancing applications and reducing implications of nanotechnology. ACS Nano, 2, 395.
39.
JeongG.H., LeeY.W., KimM., and HanS.W. (2009). High-yield synthesis of multi-branched gold nanoparticles and their surface-enhanced Raman scattering properties. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 329, 97.
40.
JoshiS. (2008). Can nanotechnology improve the sustainability of biobased products?. J. Ind. Ecol., 12, 474.
41.
KarnB., KuikenT., and OttoM. (2009). Nanotechnology and in situ remediation: a review of the benefits and potential risks. Environ. Health Perspect., 117, 1813.
42.
KellerA.A., and LazarevaA. (2013). Predicted releases of engineered nanomaterials: from global to regional to local. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 1, 65.
43.
KellerA.A., McFerranS., LazarevaA., and SuhS. (2014). Global life cycle releases of engineered nanomaterials. J. Nanopart. Res., 15, 1.
44.
KerrR.A. (2012). Is the world tottering on the precipice of peak gold?. Science, 335, 1038.
45.
KimH.C., and FthenakisV. (2013). Life cycle energy and climate change implications of nanotechnologies. J. Ind. Ecol., 17, 528.
46.
KollerG., FischerU., and HungerbühlerK. (2000). Assessing safety, health, and environmental impact early during process development. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 39, 960.
47.
KunnariE., ValkamaJ., KeskinenM., and MansikkamäkiP. (2009). Environmental evaluation of new technology: printed electronics case study. J. Clean. Prod., 17, 791.
48.
KushnirD., and SandénB.A. (2008). Energy requirements of carbon nanoparticle production. J. Ind. Ecol., 12, 360.
49.
KushnirD., and SandénB.A. (2011). Multi-level energy analysis of emerging technologies: a case study in new materials for lithium ion batteries. J. Clean. Prod., 19, 1405.
50.
LangilleM.R., PersonickM.L., ZhangJ., and MirkinC.A. (2012). Defining rules for the shape evolution of gold nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 134, 14542.
51.
Lapresta-FernándezA., FernándezA., and BlascoJ. (2012). Nanoecotoxicity effects of engineered silver and gold nanoparticles in aquatic organisms. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem., 32, 40.
52.
LeCorreD., HohenthalC., DufresneA., and BrasJ. (2013). Comparative sustainability assessment of starch nanocrystals. J Polym. Environ., 21, 71.
53.
LeonardK., AhmmadB., OkamuraH., and KurawakiJ. (2011). In situ green synthesis of biocompatible ginseng capped gold nanoparticles with remarkable stability. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces, 82, 391.
54.
LevinM. (2001). Pharmaceutical Process Scale-Up. London: CRC Press.
55.
LiQ., McGinnisS., SydnorC., WongA., and RenneckarS. (2013). Nanocellulose life cycle assessment. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 1, 919.
56.
LohseS.E., and MurphyC.J. (2012). Applications of colloidal inorganic nanoparticles: from medicine to energy. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 134, 15607.
57.
LowA., and BansalV. (2010). A visual tutorial on the synthesis of gold nanoparticles. Biomed. Imaging Interv J, 6, e9.
58.
LowryG.V., HotzeE.M., BernhardtE.S., DionysiouD.D., PedersenJ.A., WiesnerM.R., and XingB. (2010). Environmental occurrences, behavior, fate, and ecological effects of nanomaterials: an introduction to the special series. J. Environ. Qual., 39, 1867.
59.
MeyerD.E., CurranM.A., and GonzalezM.A. (2010). An examination of silver nanoparticles in socks using screening-level life cycle assessment. J. Nanopart. Res., 13, 147.
60.
MuddG.M. (2007). Global trends in gold mining: towards quantifying environmental and resource sustainability. Resour. Policy, 32, 42.
61.
NadagoudaM.N., and VarmaR.S. (2006). Green and controlled synthesis of gold and platinum nanomaterials using vitamin B2: density-assisted self-assembly of nanospheres, wires and rods. Green Chem., 8, 516.
62.
NarayananK.B., and SakthivelN. (2008). Coriander leaf mediated biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles. Mater. Lett., 62, 4588.
63.
NoruziM., ZareD., and DavoodiD. (2012). A rapid biosynthesis route for the preparation of gold nanoparticles by aqueous extract of cypress leaves at room temperature. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc., 94, 84.
64.
OberdörsterE. (2004). Manufactured nanomaterials (fullerenes, C60) induce oxidative stress in the brain of juvenile largemouth bass. Environ. Health Perspect., 112, 1058.
65.
OberdörsterG. (2010). Safety assessment for nanotechnology and nanomedicine: concepts of nanotoxicology. J. Intern. Med., 267, 89.
66.
OsterwalderN., CapelloC., HungerbühlerK., and StarkW.J. (2006). Energy consumption during nanoparticle production: how economic is dry synthesis?. J. Nanopart. Res., 8, 1.
67.
PhilipD. (2009). Biosynthesis of Au, Ag and Au-Ag nanoparticles using edible mushroom extract. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc., 73, 374.
68.
PudduV., ChoiH., DionysiouD.D., and PumaG.L. (2010). TiO2 photocatalyst for indoor air remediation: influence of crystallinity, crystal phase, and UV radiation intensity on trichloroethylene degradation. Appl. Catal. B Environ., 94, 211.
69.
RaveendranP., FuJ., and WallenS.L. (2006). A simple and “green” method for the synthesis of Au, Ag, and Au–Ag alloy nanoparticles. Green Chem., 8, 34.
70.
RocoM.C. (2011). The long view of nanotechnology development: the National Nanotechnology Initiative at 10 years. In Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal Needs in 2020. RocoM.C., WilliamsR.S., AlivisatosP. (Eds.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, pp. 1–28.
71.
RosenbaumR.K., BachmannT.M., GoldL.S., HuijbregtsM.A.J., JollietO., JuraskeR., KoehlerA., LarsenH.F., MacLeodM., and MargniM. (2008). USEtox—the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 13, 532.
72.
RuleK.L., and VikeslandP.J. (2009). Surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy for the rapid detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia. Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 1147.
73.
SchoddeR. (2011). Recent trends in gold discovery. NewGenGold Conference, 2011/11/22/23.
74.
SeagerT., SelingerE., and WiekA. (2012). Sustainable engineering science for resolving wicked problems. J. Agric. Environ. Ethics, 25, 467.
75.
ShibasakiM., FischerM., and BarthelL. (2007). Effects on life cycle assessment—scale up of processes. In TakataS. and UmedaY., Eds., Advances in Life Cycle Engineering for Sustainable Manufacturing Businesses. London: Springer, pp. 377–381.
76.
ShuklaR., NuneS.K., ChandaN., KattiK., MekapothulaS., KulkarniR.R., WelshonsW.V., KannanR., and KattiK.V. (2008). Soybeans as a phytochemical reservoir for the production and stabilization of biocompatible gold nanoparticles. Small, 4, 1425.
77.
SmithG.B., GranqvistC.G., and LakhtakiaA. (2011). Green nanotechnology: solutions for sustainability and energy in the built environment. J. Nanophoton., 5, 050201.
78.
StarrM., and TranK. (2008). Determinants of the physical demand for gold: evidence from panel data. World Econ., 31, 416.
79.
SungK.-M., MosleyD.W., PeelleB.R., ZhangS., and JacobsonJ.M. (2004). Synthesis of monofunctionalized gold nanoparticles by fmoc solid-phase reactions. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 126, 5064.
80.
TsaiD.H., ChoT.J., DelRioF.W., TaurozziJ., ZachariahM.R., and HackleyV.A. (2011). Hydrodynamic fractionation of finite size gold nanoparticle clusters. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 133, 8884.
81.
TufvessonL.M., TufvessonP., WoodleyJ.M., and BörjessonP. (2013). Life cycle assessment in green chemistry: overview of key parameters and methodological concerns. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 18, 431.
82.
TurkevichJ., StevensonP.C., and HillierJ. (1951). A study of the nucleation and growth processes in the synthesis of colloidal gold. Discuss. Faraday Soc., 11, 55.
83.
VikeslandP.J., and WiggintonK.R. (2010). Nanomaterial enabled biosensors for pathogen monitoring - a review. Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 3656.
84.
WangZ.L., and WuW. (2012). Nanotechnology-enabled energy harvesting for self-powered micro-/nanosystems. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 51, 11700.
85.
WarnerJ.C., CannonA.S., and DyeK.M. (2004). Green chemistry. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev., 24, 775.
WenderB.A., and SeagerT.P. (2011). Towards prospective life cycle assessment: Single wall carbon nanotubes for lithium-ion batteries. 2011IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology (ISSST), 2011/05//.
88.
WiekA., GasserL., and SiegristM. (2009). Systemic scenarios of nanotechnology: sustainable governance of emerging technologies. Futures, 41, 284.
89.
ZhangD., WeiS., KailaC., SuX., WuJ., KarkiA.B., YoungD.P., and GuoZ. (2010). Carbon-stabilized iron nanoparticles for environmental remediation. Nanoscale, 2, 917.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
