This study investigated the effect of outdoor exercise on measures of mood, energy, tiredness, and attention. One hundred eighty-one participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: (1) indoor exercise, (2) indoor rest, (3) outdoor exercise, or (4) outdoor rest. Outdoor conditions involved exposure to actual nature, and indoor conditions involved exposure to simulated nature. We hypothesized that there would be a main effect for activity such that participants who exercised (i.e., walked) would demonstrate more favorable pretest-to-posttest changes in mood, energy, tiredness, and attention than participants who rested (i.e., sat). We also expected to find a main effect for setting such that participants whose sessions took place outdoors (i.e., in actual nature) would demonstrate more favorable pretest-to-posttest changes in mood, energy, tiredness, and attention than participants whose sessions took place indoors (i.e., in simulated nature). Lastly, we expected activity and setting to interact such that participants who exercised outdoors would demonstrate the most favorable pretest-to-posttest changes, and participants who rested indoors would demonstrate the least favorable changes. We found partial support for all three hypotheses. Under conditions of rest, the benefits of exposure to actual nature are greater than the benefits of exposure to simulated nature. Under conditions of exercise, the benefits of exposure to actual nature are less clear. Key Words: Mood—Attention—Physical activity—Actual versus simulated nature—Outdoor exercise.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BartonJ., & PrettyJ. (2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 3947–3955.
2.
BermanM. G., JonidesJ., & KaplanS. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207–1212.
3.
BermanM. G., KrossE., KrpanK. M., AskrenM. K., BursonA., DeldinP. J., … JonidesJ. (2012). Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140, 300–305.
4.
BertoR. (2005). Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25, 249–259.
5.
BertoR., BaroniM. R., ZainaghiA., & BettellaS. (2010). An exploratory study of the effect of high and low fascination environments on attentional fatigue. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 494–500.
6.
BodinM., & HartigT. (2003). Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological restoration gained through running?. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, 141–153.
7.
BowlerD. E., Buyung-AliL., KnightT. M., & PullinA. S. (2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health, 10, 456–465.
8.
BratmanG. N., DailyG. C., LevyB. J., & GrossJ. J. (2015). The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, 41–50.
9.
BratmanG. N., HamiltonJ. P., & DailyG. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249, 118–136.
10.
CackowskiJ. M., & NasarJ. L. (2003). The restorative effects of roadside vegetation: Implications for automobile driver anger and frustration. Environment and Behavior, 35, 736–751.
11.
ChangY. K., LabbanJ. D., GapinJ. I., & EtnierJ. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis. Brain Research, 1453, 87–101.
12.
ColesK., & TomporowskiP. D. (2008). Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 333–344.
13.
EkkekakisP., HallE. E., VanLanduytL. M., & PetruzzelloS. J. (2000). Walking in (affective) circles: Can short walks enhance affect?. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 23, 245–275.
14.
FanJ., McCandlissB. D., SommerT. I., RazA., & PosnerM. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340–347.
15.
FelstenG. (2009). Where to take a study break on the college campus: An attention restoration theory perspective. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 160–167.
16.
FochtB. C. (2009). Brief walks in outdoor and laboratory environments: Effects on affective responses, enjoyment, and intentions to walk for exercise. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 80, 611–620.
17.
FugateN. (2010). The effect of workload on strain outcomes and attributions: A test of the demand control model (Unpublished master's thesis). Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY.
18.
GaterslebenB., & AndrewsM. (2013). When walking in nature is not restorative—the role of prospect and refuge. Health & Place, 20, 91–101.
19.
GenioleS. N., DavidJ. P. F., EuzebioR. F. R., ToledoB. Z. S., NevesA. I. M., & McCormickC. M. (2016). Restoring land and mind: The benefits of an outdoor walk on mood are enhanced in a naturalized landfill area relative to its neighboring urban area. Ecopsychology, 8, 107–120.
20.
GuilfordJ. P. (1960). Alternate uses, Form A. Beverly Hills, CA: Sheridan Supply.
21.
HansenC. J., StevensL. C., & CoastJ. R. (2001). Exercise duration and mood state: How much is enough to feel better?. Health Psychology, 20, 267–275.
22.
HartigT., EvansG. W., JamnerL. D., DavisD. S., & GärlingT. (2003). Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 109–123.
23.
HartigT., MangM., & EvansG. W. (1991). Restorative effects of natural environment experiences. Environment and Behavior, 23, 3–26.
24.
HartigT., & StaatsH. (2006). The need for psychological restoration as a determinant of environmental preferences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 26, 215–226.
25.
JahnckeH., HyggeS., HalinN., GreenA. M., & DimbergK. (2011). Open-plan office noise: Cognitive performance and restoration. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31, 373–382.
26.
JohanssonM., HartigT., & StaatsH. (2011). Psychological benefits of walking: Moderation by company and outdoor environment. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-being, 3, 261–280.
27.
KahnP. H.Jr., SeversonR. L., & RuckertJ. H. (2009). The human relation with nature and technological nature. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 37–42.
28.
KaplanS. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182.
29.
KinnafickF., & Thøgersen-NtoumaniC. (2014). The effect of the physical environment and levels of activity on affective states. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 38, 241–251.
30.
KjellgrenA., & BuhrkallH. (2010). A comparison of the restorative effect of a natural environment with that of a simulated natural environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 464–472.
31.
LambourneK., & TomporowskiP. (2010). The effect of exercise-induced arousal on cognitive task performance: A meta-regression analysis. Brain Research, 1341, 12–24.
32.
LaumannK., GärlingT., & StormarkK. M. (2001). Rating scale measures of restorative components of environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 31–44.
33.
LeeJ., ParkB., TsunetsuguY., KagawaT., & MiyazakiY. (2009). Restorative effects of viewing real forest landscapes, based on a comparison with urban landscapes. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 24, 227–234.
34.
LezakM. D., HowiesonD. B., BiglerE. D., & TranelD. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
35.
MayerF. S., FrantzC. M., Bruehlman-SenecalE., & DolliverK. (2009). Why is nature beneficial? The role of connectedness to nature. Environment and Behavior, 41, 607–643.
36.
McMahanE. A., & EstesD. (2015). The effect of contact with natural environments on positive and negative affect: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10, 507–519.
37.
McMorrisT., & HaleB. J. (2011). Differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition: A meta-analytical investigation. Brain and Cognition, 80, 338–351.
38.
McMorrisT., SprouleJ., TurnerA., & HaleB. J. (2011). Acute, intermediate intensity exercise, and speed and accuracy in working memory tasks: A meta-analytical comparison of effects. Physiology & Behavior, 102, 421–428.
39.
NisbetE. K., & ZelenskiJ. M. (2011). Underestimating nearby nature: Affective forecasting errors obscure the happy path to sustainability. Psychological Science, 22, 1101–1106.
40.
OppezzoM., & SchwartzD. L. (2014). Give your ideas some legs: The positive effect of walking on creative thinking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40, 1142–1152.
41.
ParkB., TsunetsuguY., KasetaniT., HiranoH., KagawaT., SatoM., & MiyazakiY. (2007). Physiological effects of shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)—using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 26, 123–128.
42.
PerkinsS., SearightH. R., & RatwikS. (2011). Walking in a natural winter setting to relieve attention fatigue: A pilot study. Psychology, 2, 777–780.
43.
PlanteT. G., AldridgeA., BogdenR., & HanelinC. (2003). Might virtual reality promote the mood benefits of exercise?. Computers in Human Behavior, 19, 495–509.
44.
PlanteT. G., AldridgeA., SuD., BogdanR., BeloM., & KahnK. (2003). Does virtual reality enhance the management of stress when paired with exercise? An exploratory study. International Journal of Stress Management, 10, 203–216.
45.
PlanteT. G., CageC., ClementsS., & StoverA. (2006). Psychological benefits of exercise paired with virtual reality: Outdoor exercise energizes whereas indoor virtual exercise relaxes. International Journal of Stress Management, 13, 108–117.
46.
PlanteT. G., GoresC., BrechtC., CarrowJ., ImbsA., & WillemsenE. (2007). Does exercise environment enhance the psychological benefits of exercise for women?. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 88–98.
47.
PrettyJ., PeacockJ., SellensM., & GriffinM. (2005). The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 15, 319–337.
48.
ReedJ., & OnesD. S. (2006). The effect of acute aerobic exercise on positive activated affect: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 477–514.
49.
ReedK., WoodC., BartonJ., PrettyJ. N., CohenD., & SandercockG. R. H. (2013). A repeated measures experiment of green exercise to improve self-esteem in UK school children. PloS One, 8, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069176
50.
RussellJ. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 1161–1178.
51.
RyanR. M., WeinsteinN., BernsteinJ., BrownK. W., MistrettaL., & GagnéM. (2010). Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 159–168.
52.
SmithA. (1973). Symbol digit modalities test. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
53.
TaylorA. F., & KuoF. E. (2009). Children with attention deficits concentrate better after walk in the park. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12, 402–409.
54.
TennessenC. M., & CimprichB. (1995). Views to nature: Effects on attention. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 77–85.
55.
ThayerR. E. (1978). Factor analytic and reliability studies on the Activation–Deactivation Adjective Check List. Psychological Reports, 42, 747–756.
56.
ThayerR. E. (1986). Activation–Deactivation Adjective Check List: Current overview and structural analysis. Psychological Reports, 58, 607–614.
57.
Thompson CoonJ., BoddyK., SteinK., WhearR., BartonJ., & DepledgeM. H. (2011). Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology, 45, 1761–1772.
58.
TomporowskiP. D., & GanioM. S. (2006). Short-term effects of aerobic exercise on executive processing, memory, and emotional reactivity. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, 57–72.
59.
TsunetsuguY., ParkB., IshiiH., HiranoH., KagawaT., & MiyazakiY. (2007). Physiological effects of shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest) in an old-growth broadleaf forest in Yamagata Prefecture, Japan. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 26, 135–142.
60.
UlrichR. S., SimonsR. F., LositoB. D., FioritoE., MilesM. A., & ZelsonM. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201–230.
61.
van den BergA. E., KooleS. L., & van der WulpN. Y. (2003). Environment preference and restoration: (How) are they related?. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 135–146.
62.
WatsonD., ClarkL. A., & TellegenA. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
